AMERICAN HISTORY SUBJECTS

Since many of the entries in this list pertain to wars or commanders, we show here four remarkable web sites that provide details including maps, chronologies, leaders, force strengths and losses, color illustrations and much more. We are also preparing a reference list focused on presidential elections here. and another focused on wars in North America prior to 1865 here

Wikipedia list of wars and conflicts in British America - that is prior to United States

Wikipedialist of wars and conflicts in the United States - with links, and it extends into 20th century

Wikipedia a list of conflicts in North America - This is a remarkable, detailed, list, with links, to all sorts of small and large conflicts including Canada and Mexico

Wikipedia List of forts in the United States This list indicates which forts have web entries and which do not.

Britishbattles - Another terrific web site is a huge detailed compendium of British battles - actually those involving Britain before there was England or Great Britain -profusely illustrated and the lengthy index page his the links to individual battles in chronological order by wars. For purposes of American history the battles in the French and Indian War and American Revolution are excellent

Another outstanding web reference is that of the U.S. Army Center of Military History that has its book Soldiers and Statesmen of the Constitution by Robert Wright and Morris MacGregor is online. In addition to biographies of many military and civilian statesmen and leaders it has many original documents.

Legendsofamerica is a wonderful reference to American History with many linked subcategories. It is especially strong on Western history and the history of Native Americans.

The Civil War Trust has many maps and animated maps and photos and text about Civil War battles.

Proprietary Colony - Excellent description of the way this kind of colony was governed in contrast to a Crown colony.

Crown Colony - or Royal Colony - Article describing the government structure of a crown colony - a term in use until 1991.

Article describing the Colonial History of the United States including French, Spanish, Dutch, Swedish, Russian and English settlement.

Connecticut Colony - Article describing the several separate colonies originally established and then merged to form Connecticut

History of Connecticut - Article expanding on the history up to the 19th century.

New Sweden - Article describing the Swedish effort to establish a colony along the Delaware River.

Delaware Colony - Article describing the development of Delaware including the Swedish and Dutch efforts.

History of Delaware - Article expanding on the role of Dutch, Swedes and English up to the American Revolution.

Province of Georgia - Article describing the early history of the last colony created of the original 13.

History of Georgia - Article describing the history of Georgia through the Civil War.

List of colonial governors of Georgia.

Province of Maine - Article describing its founding and early history.

History of Maine - Article describing they.

History of Maryland - Article providing general history of Maryland.

Province of Maryland - Article describing the early colonial period .

List of colonial governors of Maryland.

Plymouth Colony - Article describing the founding and development of the first settlement in Massachusetts.

Province of Massachusetts Bay -Article describing the development of the colony.

Massachusetts Bay Colony - Article describing the founding and development of the colony.

History of Massachusetts - Article describing the development of the State of Massachusetts.

List of colonial governors of Massachusetts.

Province of New Hampshire - Article describing the development of New Hampshire out of the other colonies.

History of New Hampshire - Article describing the origin and development of State of New Hampshire.

List of colonial governors of New Hampshire.

Province of New Jersey - Article describing the founding and development of the colony.

Colonial History of New Jersey - Article describing development of the colony until statehood.

List of colonial governors of New Jersey.

New Netherland - Article describing the Dutch settlement that became New York.

Province of New York - Article describing the English occupation of New York from 1664 - to 1776.

History of New York state - Article describing the history of the state _not the city.

List of colonial governors of New York.

Province of Carolina - Article describing the original province prior to its being divided into North and South Carolina.

Province of North Carolina - Article describing the province after the split into North and South.

History of North Carolina - Article describing the history to the 19th century.

List of colonial governors of North Carolina.

Province of Pennsylvania - Article describing the early period in the founding and development of the colony.

History of Pennsylvania - Article describing pre-Colombian era, the early colony and period to 19th century.

Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations - Article describing the founding and early development of the separate colonies.

History of Rhode Island - Article that describes the colonies that created the State of Rhode Island.

List of colonial governors of Rhode Island.

Province of South Carolina - Article describing the colony after it split with North Carolina.

History of South Carolina - Article describing the state to the Civil War.

List of colonial governors of South Carolina.

History of Vermont - Article describing the creation of Vermont from other colonies.

Colony of Virginia -Article describing the development of Virginia from 1609.

History of Virginia.

List of colonial governors of Virginia.

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James Abercrombie was a professional British solder who served throughout the 18th Century and rose to be appointed Commander in Chief of British forces in Northern America in 1757 during the French and Indian War after the departure of his predecessor, John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun. He was recalled after his defeat at Fort Carillon but didn't retire until 1792.

Unfortunately, despite a generally very successful career, Abercrombie is most remembered for the disastrous defeat he suffered at the Battle of Fort Carillon in July 1758 which was blamed on his stubborn use of European tactics to launch a frontal attack on a significant fortification without artillery support. The 42nd Foot (Black Watch) suffered very high losses during their heroic storm of the palisade.

Individuals and groups who agitated and became politically active demanding the abolition of slavery.

The Acadians were the French settlers in the Maritime provinces including Nova Scotia in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were farmers and fishermen. They had excellent relations with many indigenous peoples and formed military alliance against the British. They became involved with the wars between the British and French. There were six colonial wars, four between the French and English plus Father Rale'sWar and Father Le Loutre's War and a Civil War. During the French and Indian War the British removed the Acadians and settled many in the colonies and around New Orleans. Some went to France and some returned after the American Revolution.

The epic poem - Evangeline - by Longfellow generated much interest and support.
The Wikipedia entry provides great detail.

She was not only the wife, but also the closest advisor to President John Adams. She was also the mother of President John Q. Adams, and five others. She is generally considered one of the Founders of the United States. Her correspondence with her husband is considered a major primary source of information about colonial America during the Revolution and before. She accompanied here husband on his diplomatic assignments in Europe and of course also acted as First Lady - hostess during his times as Vice President and President.

He was the grandson of John Adams and son of John Quincy Adams

His son, Charles Adams Jr. was a Civil War general

Civil War general

He was the son of Charles Francis Adams. During the Civil War he was secretary to his father who was Lincoln's Ambassador to the Court of St. James.

He was a well respected historian whose History of the United States is considered one of the very best.

He was born in Massachusetts to a middle class family, his father was a minister. He gradated Harvard in 1755. He was a cousin of Sam Adams, although a leader of the independence - minded colonists, he defended the British soldiers who had killed or wounded members of the mob in the 'Boston Massacre'. He was a delegate to both the First and SecondContinental Congresses. In June 1775 he nominated George Washington to be the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. He continued to be one of the leaders throughout the revolutionary period. The Wikipedia article is very extensive in describing his lengthy and important influence. There is a huge list of places and other memorials named for John Adams.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from Massachusetts. His biography is listed with the Signers. He was the second President of the United States, having been the first Vice President. He is among the Founding Fathers of the United States. His supporters became known as the 'Federalist" party in competition with Thomas Jefferson.

He was born in Massachusetts and graduated from Harvard as a lawyer. His father was John Adams.

He was sixth President of the United States. He had a distinguished career as a diplomat from secretary to the Minister to Russia in 1781 and as Secretary of State for President Monroe 1817 -1825. After being president he was a representative in Congress, where he died from a stroke.

He was born in Boston to a prosperous and politically active family, educated at Harvard, and went into his father's brewery business. His greatest fame was won as a patriot leader up to the time of the War for Independence. He helped to organize the Sons of Liberty, started the Committee of Correspondence, and probably joined with John Hancock in organizing the BostonTea Party. He worked to arouse opposition to the Sugar, Stamp, and Townshend Acts, served in the Massachustts House of Representatives, the Continental Congress (both the First and Second). He helped write the Articles of Confederation. After the war he was governor of Massachusetts.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from Massachusetts. He is listed among the Declaration signers. He is depicted -seated in the first row next to Richard Henry Lee in Trunbull's painting of the Signing of the Declaration. The Wikipedia article is very extensive and has many scholarly footnotes. And a Google search finds numerous other references.

This treaty with Spain resulted in the annexation of Florida.

This was one of the "Intolerable Acts" - also called the "Coercive acts" - the others were the Boston Port Act, the Quebec Act, The Massachusetts Government-Act.

The department of British government in charge of naval affairs. During the colonial period it was much involved in regulating colonial trade and protecting it at sea.

When colonial juries and courts refused to find smugglers guilty, the British government moved trials to Admiralty Courts.

The term refers to land and agriculture and connotes a belief both in the importance of the cultivation of the soil and of farming as a way of life. In this sense, Jefferson was an agrarian, but he believed in free trade and free enterprise, not that government should subsidize farming or direct its development.

Confederate naval raider built in England

The Mexican general - ruler - Santa Anna - defeated the Texan rebels, but the public relations result generated intense demand for Texas independence.

The Alamo is still an historical monument in San Antonio, Texas.

The recommendation of a committee of delegates from all 13 colonies who met in Albany N.Y. and led by Benjamin Franklin. They advocated increased unity of colonial action in the face of the major threats during the French and Indian War.

The meeting is generally termed 'The Albany Congress'. The recommendations were not adopted.

Originally visited in 1586 but not permanently until a hundred years later or so - it was named for one of the 8 English proprietors granted Carolina by King Charles II - George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle.

A very large number of the American Indian tribes all spoke a variant of the Algonquian language. They occupied an area comprising almost all of the north-east quadrant of colonial area from Quebec to the Carolinas and west to the Mississippi in places. Among the tribes were the Abenaki,=Powhatan, - Lenape, - Pequot, - Shawnee, - Chippewa, and even the Cheyenne.

Passed by the Federalist party and opposed by Jefferson and Republican party.

It became a major political issue and was mostly, but not completely, repealed by Jefferson.

Revolutionary war patriot - he captured Fort Ticonderoga, from which later General Knox was able to bring its cannon to Washington's siege of Boston.

Founded by William Garrison and others.

This is an excellent entry describing the origins, issues, events and results of the war. There are many illustrations and many links to more detailed entries on specific topics.

This organization was established by Robert Finley of New Jersey with the mission of enabling African-American's to return to Africa. For the purpose an area to be called Liberia was developed in 1821-22. The members were mostly evangelicals and Quakers. Presidents Jefferson, Monroe and Madison supported the society.

Liberia was declared an independent state in 1847. By 1867 13,000 Africans had returned. The society ended active efforts in 1919 and was dissolved in 1964. The plantation main building of Liberia plantation remains as an historical monument in Manassas, VA. It was used by both Confederate and Union forces as a hospital during the Civil War

This is another name for the SugarAct and the Revenue Act. The Molasses Act was passed in 1733 at the demand of British plantation owners in the West Indies because sugar from French and Spanish colonies was priced lower than theirs and they needed lumber and other goods imported from the northern colonies. The British merchants obtained more wealth from the West Indies than from the northern colonies. But merchants there were smuggling. But the Molassas Act expired in 1764 and Parliament needed much greater income due both to the debt generated during the French and Indian War and to pay for the increased troop garrison needed due to Pontiac's Rebellion. . .

This revenue Act generated huge opposition in the colonies and was repealed in 1766.

The company was founded by John Jacob Astor to organize and create a monopoly in the trade in beaver and other fur from the Rocky Mounains and western plains. At one point Astor was considered the wealthiest individual in the World. He competed with the British Northwest Fur Company and the Hudson's Bay Company for the North American fur trade. He created the port of Fort Astoria in the Oregon area because the furs were to be exported to China in exchange for cheap Chinese manufactures to be sold in Europe and America. He also entered into cooperation with the Russian fur traders in North America (Alaska to California). And he established another center around St. Louis to compete with the French family trappers bringing fur east from the Rocky Mtns.
In the mid 1830's the fashion of English gentlemen for fur hats suddenly declined greatly reducing the profits from beaver fur. That was the time astute traders such as Charles and William Bent switched to trade in buffalo hides and even more in the transport of goods between St. Louis and Santa Fe.

Note this early use of Chinese goods in a world wide trading system. Astor made his initial fortune not only on beaver fur but also on tea and silk from China. But he made the great majority of his huge future by investing in real estate in Manhattan. Then he became a great philanthropist.

This entry discusses the multiple conflicts between the Native peoples of the United States and Canada and the European settlers. See also the entry - List of American Indian Wars.

The list is divided into chronological sections beginning with 'colonial wars' and each 'war' (including brief conflicts) has its link to the relevant entry.

There have been many political parties that incorporated "American" in their names. But the main one in pre-Civil War times was also called the Toleration Party organized in Conn. to oppose the Federalists. Later was known as the "Know Nothings' and still later as its issues became of less interest many members joined the Whig Party.

This organization was founded in Philidelphia and soon became internationally known as a promoter of science. It published a journal and opened a museum. Ben Franklin was a president and George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton were early members.

The society's building still exists in Philadelphia and is now a National Landmark.

This organization was founded in Boston and soon had thousands or local chapters throughout the country and over a million members. it developed into a broad reformist movement and championed women's suffrage and rights and also abolition of slavery.

Civil War general

Federalist Party Congressman

The Cherokee were British allies during the Tuscarora War (1711 - 1715) and off and on during the Yamasee War (1715 -1717). The continued as allies during the opening of the French and Indian War. they sent warriors to assist in Forbes' campaign to take Fort Dusquense. He didn't appreciate them and there was a 'falling out'. On the way back to North Carolina some Cherokee were murdered by Virginians. There already were Cherokee leaders who were pro-French as the French in Lousiaan were sending supplies and encouraging them to oppose the British. Hostilities increased as both sides conducted revenge raids. Campaigns by the North Carolinia against them were unsuccessful. So the governor asked General Amhurst for military aid. He sent the Royal Scots Regiment and the 77th Foot, Montomerile's Highlanders which managed to burn some Cherokee towns and disrupt them, but not sufficiently. Then he sent Grant who conducted a more devastating campaign, burning more villages. Finally the Cherokee signed peace treaties. Then three Cherokee leaders traveled to London where they met King George III and other British leaders.

Jeffrey Amhurst, Field Marshal and 1st Baron Amhurst, was a professional British soldier who served throughout the 18th Century in many battles in Europe and then the American colonies. He became an Ensign in the Grenadier Guards in 1725, fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and then was sent to America. He captured Louisbourgin 1758 and Fort Ticonderoga (which under previous name, Carillon, Abercrombie had failed to do). He was appointed Crown Governor of Virginia 1759-1768 and Governor of Quebec Province 1760 - 1763.

He was appointed commander in chief of the 60th Foot. He captured Montreal in 1760. He supervised as C-in-C the British capture of Dominica in 1761 and Martinique and Cuba in 1762. In 1758 he was British C-in-C supervising Gen. Forbes' campaign to take Fort Duquense. And also the relief of Fort Pitt by Forbes and Bouquet in 1763. He was attacked in Parliament for Pontiac's Rebellion but made a peer and Baron in 1776 and in 1778 made General Commander in Chief of British Forces. In 1780 he supervised the elimination of Gordon's Riot in London and was made Field Marshal in 1796.

The revolt of African Slaves on board this ship led to international diplomatic and judicial contests. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that since slavery was illegal by international law the Africans were not slaves and were well within their rights to rebel.

This legislation removed the many restrictions on Confederate officials and was part of the political compromises of 1872 that ended Reconstruction,

The Seven Years' War ended with the Treaty of Hubertusberg in January 1763. At that time grain prices had been higher due to the war and its economic warfare. The price of grain began significant decline, 30% by May. Many banks and merchant houses were highly leveraged with large sums of credit outstanding base on grain as a collateral. And they were interlinked by complex reationships. The De Neufville Bank in Amsterdam collapsed along with 30 others. At that time many of these were merchant banks - they did not take deposits. They dealt in commercial paper between merchants. When one bank failed due to the failure of one of its debtors, then its debts to other creditors were lost meaning those creditors lost, and on and on through the network. Creditors, hoping to prevent their own demise, called in their loans from normally well established firms who could not replace that credit in a collapsing credit market. Deflation of the money supply led to widespread depression and thousands of workers were thrown out of work and businesses closed. The depression was significant in the American colonies that already were feeling the financial effects of the end of the French and Indian War.

This incident from its original high prices of collateral, the large credits outstanding, the liquidity crisis, and the results from Amsterdam to London to Virginia is similar to the world wide financial crisis of 2008 with the collapse of Lehman Brothers.

Wikipedia also has an excellent general article on fianancil crisis that discusses various theories and has concepts displayed in a graph.

He had a changing appointment in the English Colonies. He was Governor of New York - sometimes also of New Jersey (but Philip Carteret disputed that after Sir George Carteret died in 1680) (1674 - 1681). Andros was recalled to England in 1681. But in 1688 he was sent as the Governor of the new Dominion of New England into which the northern colonies were merged. But Lt. Governor Francis Nicholson actually did the most governing, and the Dominion was soon abolished.

This convention in Annapolis in 1786 decided that the Articles of Confederation required revision and recommended a new convention - This lead to the new Philidelphia Convention which drafted the U.S. Constitution.

The name also refers to the Maryland government that met in 1774-1776.

To attach something to another body, usually a larger one. Thus, those who sought to bring Texas into the Union favored the 'annexation' of that independent state.

Texas was an independent state and in 1845 was admitted to the Union as the 28th state, without having previously been a territory.

He was a British career Naval officer who served in the War of the Austrian Succession. During the Seven Years' War he was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty to command all British naval forces and conduct combined operations against the French and Spanish in partnership with Lord Ligonier who commanded all army forces. Their joint efforts are a model of inerservice effectiveness.

Between the wars he circumnavigated the world.

She was an early, leading social reformer who stressed the demand for women's suffrage. She was also against-slavery.

She was a good friend of Elizabeth Cady Stanton

This was the first 'third party' in American politics. It was based on opposition to Free-Masonry. But when Masonry declined opposition to it also became less strong. Many members then joined the Whig Party. But prior to that this group organized the first political nominating conventions and party platforms in American politics.

This battle took place when George McClellan (slowly) brought the Union army into western Maryland to block Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army invasion before he could reach Penn. It is known as the 'bloodiest' single day battle in America with 22,717 dead in one afternoon.

It is also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg as Southerners frequently name battles for local towns while Northerners name them for landmarks such as streams.

The Wikipedia entry describes a wide range of political movements that opposed slavery.

Groups of related but autonomous tribes who lived in eastern Arizona, northern Mexico, New Mexico and western Texas They were met first by Spanish explorers led by Fransico Coronado while exploring north. The generic name stems from the Spanish name. Their languages relate to those spoken as far north as Alaska. The Spanish settlers created villages and from then on interacted with the Apache with trade and also raiding. The relations changed a bit after Mexico became independent in 1821. The Americans began more direct contacts during the Mexican War, in which some Apache agreed to act as guides and helpers. The Government signed treaties allocating large areas for Apache reserves. But with the rapidly increasing numbers of settlers encroaching on their hunting lands many Apache began a 'war' that lasted for several generations. In 1875 the U.S. Army forced many to move to reservations. In 1886 Geronimo with his remaining band was among the last to be forced onto a reservation.

This Wikipedia entry provides much detailed information about all aspects of the culture of the various independent Apache tribes.

Town in Virginia between Richmond and Danville - It was site of surrender of General Lee and his Confederate army.

Now it is a historic site with museum

This Native American tribe lived on the plains of Colorado and Wyoming. They were close allies of the Cheyenne, and some were loosely associated with the Lakota. In the 1850's with increasing pressure across the plains from white settlers they split into a Northern and Southern Arapaho groups, just as the Cheyenne did also. Prior to the European arrival (French) they lived in Canada where they were farmers. They were pushed west and south by Indians further east as these were pushed west by the white arrival. Initially, from the French they acquired guns and from the Spanish horses. They became formidable plains buffalo hunters along with the Cheyenne. They controlled the huge area from Montana to western Oklahoma and Colorado. But with the expansion from the south of Mexicans and American settlers in Texas the Comanche living there were pushed north. Extensive warfare took place between the Comanche and the Arapaho- Cheyenne alliance. William Bent was instrumental in establishing a convenient border - the Arkansas river at which the tribes agreed to abide - but of course there were raids. Comanche and Kiowa were to live to the south. They were welcome traders bringing buffalo hides to Fort Bent. The Arapaho main enemy north of the river were the Pawnee to their east. There were some Arapaho with the Cheyenne at their peaceful camp on the Sand Creek in 1864 when Chivington led some Colorado militia into a surprise massacre. This generated several decades of fighting all across the plains. Many Arapaho and Cheyenne moved into Wyoming from where they continued to participate in war against the white miners and the cavalry protection..

Now the Northern Arapaho live in a reservation in Wyoming and the Southern Arapaho live in Oklahoma.

This was the first 'war' between U.S. government troops and Indians west of the Mississippi and the only 'war' with the Arikara. In this the U.S, had some allies from the Sioux or Dakota tribes. The war was started over an Arikara attack on fur trappers, considered the worst such attack. The Sioux were already at frequent wars with the Arikara. The U.S. Army attack was led by Lt. Col. Henry Leavenworth from Fort Atkinson. The combined Sioux and army attack was unsuccessful. The Arikara signed a peace treaty with the government but the Sioux continued wars slowly driving the Arikara north. Eventually many melded into the Mandan communities. But years later Arikara warriors served as scouts for the army in the Indian Wars. .

This brief 'war' has been depicted in the movie - The Revanant.

He was born in New Mexico and was both soldier and statesman - 3 times governor of New Mexico. He suppressed the Revolt of 1837. In 1841 he successfully repelled the Texan Santa Fe Expedition. He favored granting land to American settlers and in 1841 granted 9,700,000 acres east of the Sangre de Cristo mountains to Charles Beaubien, Charles Bent and others. When Beaubien died, his will gave his part to his son-in-law, Lucien Maxwell. This was for a time the largest private land holding in America and is the origin of several famous ownerships today such as the Boy Scout summer camp. When General Stephen Kearny arrived in the Mexican War, Armijo realized he did not have the forces to fight, despite the desire of some subordinates. So Santa Fe was taken without a shot fired.

He has been depicted in several movies about the period.

This is the designation of the U.S. Army force lead by Stephen Kearny from Fort Leavenworth to San Diego via Santa Fe, New Mexico, during the Mexican War.

There have been several other armies with this designation - for instance in France and in the American Confederacy.

He was a merchant who operated his own ships prior to the American Revolution. As a captain he became known for his action at the capture of Ft. Ticonderoga. He then commanded forces at the Battles of Saratoga.

He was hyper-ambitious and considered himself slighted when not promoted. At this he betrayed the American fortress at West Point, New York to the British, but General Washington was alerted and prevented this. But Arnold escaped and was made a general in the British Army to conduct operations in Virginia.

This is also termed 'pork and beans' war. It was the confrontation between Great Britain and the United States over the boundary between New Brunswick, Canada, and Maine. Of course the Maine settlers wanted a boundary further north while the Canadians wanted it further south. The compromise was settled in the Webster-Ashburton Treaty. While militias were mobilized no actual fighting took place. In addition to the boundary the treaty established a British 'right of way' to transit Maine to the sea coast which is still in effect.

President of the United States

The Articles were prepared by the Second Continental Congress and ratified by all 13 colonies. They were soon recognized as being inadequate due to lack of authority for the central government. They were replaced by the U. S. Constitution in 1789.

He was born in Virginia and moved into Louisanna territory before its purchase. He lived in St. Louis after 1808. He was a fur trapper and business man. He was a brigadier general of Missouri militia in the War of 1812. He made a fortune from making gunpowder. He was elected the first Lt. Governor of Missouri, 1820 -24. He organized major fur trapping and exploration expeditions up the Missouri River and into the Rocky Mtms. He established the Rocky Mountain Fur Company. He discovered South Pass in 1824 and reached the Salt Lake basin in 1825. He discovered Lake Utah and build Fort Ashley there which then conducted fur trade valued at $180,000 in the following 3 years. He sold his fur business to Jedediah Smith when he turned to politics. He was elected representative to the Congress three times.

He is among the most famous of the early 'mountain men'.

He began his fortune as an organizer of the fur trade in western U.S. and invested in New York and other real estate. He has been declared the richest man in the world of his time.

He was a Democrat Senator from MO. and was President pro tempore of the Senate for 6 years. Perhaps his most famous (but disputed) role was that he might have been the President of the United States for one day in 1849.

An act of a legislature prescribing the punishment of a particular person. For example, a person might be declared by a legislature to be an outlaw, his property and rights taken from him and a punishment set for him when he should be captured if he were a fugitive. Such bills were frequently used in 16th and 17th century England. They are prohibited in the United States Constitution and in those of most states. The great importance of the prohibition is that it helps to ensure due process before a person is convicted.

He obtained permission from the Mexican Government to bring settlers into Texas. Eventually they overwhelmed the Mexicans and Austin was the leader along with Sam Houston in obtaining independence for Texas.

He was an influential journalist.

He was the 1st Viscount St. Alban.

He instigated and led Virginia settlers in revolt against the governor who was attempting to create friendship between the colonists and Indians - they advocated and practiced harsh attacks on the Indians.

He was called "Doctor Mirabilis" He was a Franscian friar.

Revolt by Virginia colonists who fought local Indians despite official government policy to seek peace. This in turn caused conflict with the governor.

He was a strong abolitionist publisher who was active in the Underground Railroad effort in Ohio.

He graduated from Yale in 1772 and initially was a minister and during the Revolution a chaplain of Conn., militia. He changed to study law and education. He moved to Georgia to help found the University - the first public institution of higher education of which he was the first president. He served 5 terms in the U.S. House and then in the Senate from 1799 till his death in 1807.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Georgia and is considered a Founding Father of the United States

He was a Canadian Premier involved in the rebellion of 1837.

This was the first railroad in the United States. It was the major Northern railroad with a line west through the mountains of northern West Virginia - western Maryland. This was frequently raided by the Confederate units as it was a major link for moving Union forces between east and west.

Remarkably it opened only 5 years after the first British railroad, the Stockton and Darlington. By the time of the Civil War American railroads exceeded the mileage of the British, French and German railroads combined. Of course the distances and areas that required rail also exceeded those.

The bank was established as part of the "Glorious Revolution' in which the Dutch stadholder, William, became King William III of England. The financial revolution was to shift the financing of government from the personal accounts of the monarch to Parliament, thus making debt that of the country rather than the person. This enabled the Bank to be financed from the subscription of funds from individuals, wealthy individuals and merchants who became its stock holders. It was modeled on the banking industry in Holland and the Swedish national bank. It became the 'central bank' of England by its issue of credit instruments "perpetuals' that had no specific maturity date but paid interest. This credit generating banking system funancied British wars throughout the 18th century and world commercial activity through the 19th century

Robert Morris persuaded Congress to charter this bank to handle the new government's financing. In effect this was the first central bank for the U.S. Government. Two other banks were chartered that year - Hamilton's Bank of New York and the Massachusetts Bank.

These banks were created as a system of financial intermediation peculiar to the nation's needs and laws. Prior to 1838, state chartered banks were special corporations whose owners engaged in obvious rent-seeking behavior and mobilized capital by issuing their own bank notes.

This private bank was established by Robert Morris and friends to finance the Revolution.

Established by Alexander Hamilton (on the model of the Bank of England) to secure the credit and supply of money for the new United States. This was opposed by Jefferson and agricultural interests.

This national level bank may be considered to provide the functions of a 'central bank'. Hamilton set it up with the U.S. Government owning 1/5 th of the stock and private persons the other 4/5th. His goal was to encourage the wealthy citizens to be involved in the financial success of the country. But stock was also sold to foreigners.

At one time this was considered the largest monied corporation in the world - a reflection on the rapid prosperity of the new United States. But it was still opposed by agricultural and anti-big-business interests. It was closed by President Andrew Jackson who prevented it from being reauthorized.

This refers to the conflict between President Jackson and Francis Biddle, president of the Second Bank over its reauthorization and its conduct.

This brief war was between a few hundred Bannock and Palute warriors in southern Idaho and northern Nevada versus the U.S. Army.

This Protestant religious group began in the Netherlands and spread to England, where it was not approved by the establishment Anglican Church. It was brought to the American colonies by Roger Williams. It was active participant in both the First and Second Awakening.

He was the French Admiral who brought his fleet from Neport to the Chesapeake to join Admiral de Grasse and bring artillery and French troops to assist at the Battle of Yorktown.

The several naval expeditions and attacks on Muslim cities in North Africa that for years captured European (and American) merchant ships to take prisoners for slavery.

Robert Barclay, a famous Quaker preacher, was appointed Governor of East New Jersey in 1682 for life. He attracted more Quakers from England and Scotland and from the New England colony, but he died in 1690.

This nickname - Barnburners - and Hunkers - refers to New York State politics over anti-slavery demands and policies. The 'Barnburners' led to the creation of the Free Soil Party.

He served as a British soldier in America during the French and Indian War. He later entered Parliament and supported a pro-colonist policy. He coined the term 'Sons of Liberty"

He was a professional army officer who rose through the ranks. at one point he was an aide-de-camp to King George II. As a major general, his most important exploit was the capture of French Guadalupe Island in the West Indies during the Seven Years' War.

He was Postmaster General during administration of Andrew Jackson.

He was born in the colony of Massassachutes Bay. As a very young man he became a doctor and practiced medicine for the following 45 years. But in addition he became active in the American Revolution. He was elected to the local colonial assembly in 1765 and actively opposed the British governor. He was elected from New Hampshire to the ContinentalCongress in 1775-76 and served on all the committees. He participated as a doctor in General John Stark's battle at Bennington. He was again in Congress in 1778 and helped draft the Articles of Confederation.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from New Hampshire. His biography is with the Declaration signers. After the war he was governor of New Hampshire 1791-94. His 1774 home in Kinsgston is a National historic landmark.

This was the fundamental legislation passed by the Confederation that established the process and desired result on how to administer the new lands - Northwest territories - that is land north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi obtained after the Revolutionary War.

The ordinance prescribed the method for survey and how the sections and townships would be laid out, resulting in the regular pattern we see today.

The Board of Trade nominated him to replace Andrew Hamilton in 1698, but the administration of the colony suffered so he was recalled in 1699. But he returned to New Jersey in 1703 and served as secretary for Lord Cornbury and Lord Lovelace until convicted for perjury.

He was a lawyer. He inherited great wealth from his great- great-grand father and was admitted to the bar in 1770. He was a Federalist and became active in local politics in 1776. He drafted the Delaware Constitution of 1776. His main activity during the Revolution was to muster the 1st Delaware Regiment - its 800 men was the largest battalion in the ContinentalArmy. He organized several other units. He was a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He was the most senior Senator in the First U.S. Senate and then Governor of Delaware. President Adams appointed him as a circuit court judge in 1801 - one of the 'midnight judges' under the new judicial law, but Jefferson promptly had Congress abolish the law and the judgeships.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Delaware. He is considered a Founding Father of the United States. His biography is at the Army Center of military history.

He was a politician in Maryland.

His father lived 1767 - 1815 and was a politician in Delaware.

One of the largest battles of the Indian Wars. The U.S. Army force led by Colonel (later Brig. Gen.) Kit Carson was sent to punish Comanche and Kiowa tribes that had been raiding the trading convoys on the Santa Fe Trail. They met near William Bent's abandoned trading post (Fort Adobe). Carson had about 330 cavalry and two howitzers with him and 75 infantry behind guarding his supply train. He attacked a Kiowa encampment and drove the warriors off, but he was then surprised to find upward of 1300 Comanche and Kiowa cavalry attacking him repeatedly. Thanks to skillful use of the howitzers he managed to hold the Indians off until night fall. Running out of ammunition he retreated back to New Mexico. This was a major Comanche victory and enabled them to hold their homeland in northwest Texas.

The reason this is Adobe Walls is because William Bent built it in an effort to extend his trading south, across the Arkansas into Texas (Comanche territory) but the Comanche and Kiowa raided any travelers between the fort and his main base - Bent's Fort - that he used gunpower to blow the fort up, leaving only a ruin of walls.
Kit Carson knew his Indians and the terrain, He had been to Adobe Walls for years working with William Bent. He knew to take howitzers which saved his dismounted cavalry men from the finest light cavalry anywhere. If Custer has been as wise he would have taken his Gattling guns to Little Big Horn.

This event is also known as the Battle of Arikaree Fork - and the River then was known as North Fork of the Republican River. It is in Colorado. The battle was named after Lt. Beecher who died in the battle. The battle occurred when a body of civilian scouts working with the U.S. Cavalry was attacked by Sioux and Cheyenne at their camp on a sand bar in the river. They were surrounded and fought for 3 days until finally rescued by cavalry from Fort Wallace.

Beecher Island battle site is located on the far eastern border of Colorado with Kansas, near Vernon on the Arikaree River. The site is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.

This was a much smaller 'battle' but had a more lasting result. Twenty eight bison hunters and store keepers were camped at Adobe Walls when attacked by 300 or more Comanche, Kiowa and Cheyenne led by Quanah Parker. By this time buffalo hunters and business men had built a small 'town' at the old ruin. A dawn initial attack brought the Indians riding fast right up to the buildings where a close quarters battle took place. The Indians were not able to break in so withdrew. They remained around the buildings for 2 more days exchanging rifle fire. On the third day Billy Dixon used a long range hunting rifle and with a lucky shot killed an Indian on horseback at a great distance (later estimated at 1500 yards).. This discouraged the Indians who then withdrew. By then more and more hunters and a relief column from Dodge City increased the number of defenders. But when the Americans withdrew the Indians came back and burned to buildings. The Indians could claim a victory of sorts but actually they were very discouraged by the result and soon surrendered.

There is a marker at the spot, which has been ceded to become a historical site. The battle is significant because it led to the Red River War which settled the Indians who were then moved to reservation in Oklahoma.

This was the concluding battle in the War of Regulation a confrontation between settlers in western North Carolina and the colonial government over taxation and representation. It was a prelude to the Revolutionary War. The Royal Governor, William Tryon, led 1000 government loyalists west to confront about 2000 rebels who thought they had strength in numbers. But they lacked leadership and were disorganized while the government troops were better. The 'battle' soon went against the 'regulators'.

This is also known as Battle of Deep Gully. It was a Confederate effort to dislodge a Union force in North Carolina as part of General Longstreet's Tidewater Campaign. The Confederates lost.

During the Civil War the Confederates occupied Tuscon, Arizona with a small detachment. Colonel Thomas Roberts brought Union troops via Yuma and drove the Confederates out, then proceeded toward New Mexico. At Apache Pass in south eastern Arizona they met a large number of Apache warriors who ambushed them. But the Union unit had howitzers. They drove the Apache off and entered New Mexico. The Confederates withdrew from the territory and Colonel Roberts built Fort Bowie to secure the pass.

One of the engagements that comprise the total Battles of Saratoga. This was the second engagement, after the Battle of Freeman's Farm

A full description is in a link to this Wikipedia entry on Saratoga. And at

The battle was an important part of the Saratogacampaign. The 2000 Americans, commanded by General John Starkdefeated a detachment of Burgoyne's army that was searching for supplies and horses. The Americans consisted mostly of New Hampshire and Massachusetts militia. The British (mostly Hessians) lost 1000 men and failed to obtain the critical supplies.

British victory over American defenders of Washington D. C. after which the British burned many public buildings in the city.

General George Washington commanded the Americans and General Sir William Howe the British. Rather than recross New Jersey from New York city the British used their powerful navy to transport some 17,000 troops up Chesapeake Bay to Head of Elk, disembark, and march on Philadelphia from the south. General Washingtron deployed his forces behind Brandywine Creek in an effort to block the British advance. The Americans lost 1,300 out of 14,600. The British lost 587 out of 15,300

More troops fought in this battle than in any other in the Revolutionary War, it was also the longest battle at 11 hours. Also see

The Wikipedia entry jumps to Battle of Bunker Hill

This was the first major battle of the war after 4 July, 1776. General Washington shifted his troops from Boston in an effort to defend New York City. General William Howe landed 32,000 troops on Staten Island. He then landed troops across the harbor at Gravesend Bay and attacked the American outlying positions on Long Island. The Americans paniced and had heavy loses. Over night Washington evacuated the remaining troops to Manhattan.

This is also called 'the Battle of Long Island' as the Wikipedia article indicates. The New York historical Society has colorful paintings at

The battle is considered the 'bloodiest' of the Mexican War.

The initial attempt of the American colonists to besiege Boston was countered by the first major British military engagement after Lexington and Concord

The main American position was actually on Breed's Hill, but this name stuck in the history books.

The colonists entrenched actually on Breed's hill. There is an excellent -animated - map on line for this and Lexington in a Revolutionary war web site. There is an excellent article with illustrations including a portrait of General Howe here.

There is an excellent, animated map on the Internet.

The victory of the British campaign led by Henry Bouquet to relieve the American Indian Siege of Ft. Pitt during Pontiac's Rebellion or War. He led slightly fewer that 400 professional troops, mostly from the 42nd Foot (Black Watch)and the 77th Foot (Mongomerie Highlanders) plus some of his own regiment - the 60th foot, RAR - Royal American Regiment - plus civilian teamsters and ranger scouts.
see also

This was the decisive battle that led to the end of Pontiac's Rebellion. While British losses were extensive, those of the Indians were relatively much greater, resulting in Indian recognition that they were fighting at a loss. The following year, Colonel Bouquet led a larger force deep into Ohio and forced the Indians to a treaty and to release several hundred white captives. There is now as museum at the battlefield and annual reenactment in early August

This was an important British victory. General Charles Cornwallis defeated General Horatio Gates. Gates had gained prestige from his victory at Saratoga so was sent south to counter the British strategy of detaching the southern colonies. His army outnumbered the British but was routed. Gates did not command in the field after this.

General Johann, Baron de Kalb was killed, another major loss from the battle. The Wikipedia entry has extensive detail on the background, conduct of and results from the battle.

Also know as the 1758 Battle of Ticonderoga since it was fought in the fortification in front of the fort later renamed Ticonderoga. It was a serious British defeat of their larger force led by General James Abercrombie against the French commanded by General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. Abercrombie ignored advice and committed many tactical errors while Montcalm, having concern about the strength of his fort, decided to build a field fortification some distance in front of it and then conducted his defense with great skill and courage.

The battlefield is a short distance south- west of Fredericksburg, VA. It was Robert Lee's victory over Hooker.

The battle is considered a masterpiece by Lee, but also a Union defeat due to timidity of Hooker.

The British commander, Charles de Salaberry had 1,630 Regulars plus militia and Mohawk Indians to repel Major General Wade Hampton I with 4,000, regulars in the American effort to invade Canada. The British lost 2 killed in action and the Americans lost 23..

It was the first major Civil War battle fought in Georgia, a Union defeat, and the battle with greatest casualties next to Gettysburg. The Union Army of the Cumberlandcommanded by William Rosecrans fought the army of Tennessee commanded by Braxton Bragg.

But the Confederates were unable to gain a strategic victory out of the tactical one. And with Grant bringing up reenforcements and logistics preparation the Union went on to victory at Chatanouga

Together with the battle at Lexington the same day, these were the first battles between American revolutionaries and British troops. The British had marched out of Boston intent on capturing the cannon and other weapons the Americans had collected there. The Americans were alerted by a group of riders prepared for the purpose. The alert brought several thousand militia men not only to Concord but also all along the British retreat route. The British detachment at Concord was saved by a second and larger force sent out to secure their retreat.

Ralph Waldo Emerson gave the incident fame with his phrase 'the shot heard around the world".

There is an excellent animated map of the campaign on the Internet Revolutionary War site..

This was an important American victory of the forces (2000) commanded by General Daniel Morganagainst the British force (1100) commanded by Sir Banastre Tarleton. This victory coupled with that at Kings Mountainforced the British out of western South Carolina and back to the coast.

In the Mexican-American War, General Scott had over 8,000 versus Santa Anna with less than 4,000. The Mexican defence was centered on a Franscian Convent at Chursbusio, less than 15 miles from Mexico City

The Wikipedia entry has a map.

In the Mexican- American War, General Scott had over 10,000 to the Mexican force of 7,000. The battle took place immediately prior to Chursbusio.

The Wikipedia entry has several excellent a maps.

The battle took place at Derne, Libya after Army Lt. William Eaton and Marine Lt. Presley Neville O'Bannon with a small contingent of Marines led 600 mostly mercenaries from Alexandria, Egypt across 600 miles of desert in the First Barbary War. They stormed the city successfully. Eaton became a national hero.

The battle is honored in the Marine Corps hymn.

The British attack on this French Fort in 1758 was defeated with heavy losses. This was part of General Forbes' major campaign through Pennsylvania. Major James Grant led a forward party of the 1st Highland Regiment thinking he could outwit the French, but he was himself ambushed outside the fort and taken prisoner. Henry Bouquet and George Washington commanded units in Forbes' main party so missed this debacle. But after it the French blew up the fort and retired toward the Great Lakes. The British built a new fort named Fort Pitt.

This was the last major battle during the American Revolution in the Carolinas. Both sides claimed victory but strategically it resulted in the British abandoning their campaign to control western North and South Carolina. The Americans, commanded by Nathaniel Greene attacked a British camp commanded by Alexander Stewart. Both sides had about 2000 effectives.

This was the concluding battle in the Northwest Indian War in which General Anthony Wayne routed Blue Jacket'sand Little Turtle's combined Indian force from many tribes with a small British detachment in support. In addition to his American legion he had Choctaw and Chickasaw Indian scouts. General Wayne built forts along his route north from Cincinnati and more were built afterwards including Fort Wayne.

The battle was very significant as it led to the successful Treaty of Grenville in which the American ownership of the Northwest territory was assured, the British were forced to stop helping the Indians who also were to make peace.

In this battle General Ambrose Burnside conducted an opposed river crossing of the Raphannock against the entrenched army of Robert E. Lee on the heights behind the town. Burnside had about 114,000 troops engaged against Lee's 72,500. Delays in arrival and use of pontoon bridges enabled Lee to assemble his entire army and to organize powerful defense on the ridges behind the town. Burnside was pressured to win a battle. The result was another disaster for the Union Army.

Burnside believed he had to attack anyway, since he had been ordered to and he had witnessed the failures of McClellan to attack at Antietam. He had been elevated to command the army by President Lincoln as a result of his determined performance at Antietam.

This was a major battle in the Pennsylvania Campaign in which the British captured Philadelphia. The British were commanded by General William Howe with 9,000 from his garrison in Philadelphia and the Americans ( 11,000) by General George Washington. Washington planned a very complex tactical attack in which there was much confusion. Americans lost 152 dead and 522 wounded - the British lost 71 dead, 441 wounded.

General Robert E. Lee was not wanting nor expecting a battle around the town but was gradually sucked into it by a meeting engagement of his leading corps with Buford's Union Cavalry. But even deprived of good intelligence due to the lack of Steuart's cavalry he persisted in three assaults on successive days, first against Meade's right flank, then against his left and finally in the famous Picket's charge right into the center of the Union army on Cemetery Ridge. It was not only a tactical defeat but a major strategic one.

This battle in northern New Mexico was the decisive one in the Civil War Confederate New Mexico campaign. Glorietta Pass is in the Sangre de Cristo mountains on a main route north into Colorado. While the Confederates pushed the Union troops out of the pass in a tactical victory another Union force had cut behind them and destroyed their supplies and wagon train, This forced the Confederates to withdraw.

The small battle was being waged for major strategic objectives. The Confederates wanted to push the Union out of New Mexico and part of Colorado to gain access to gold and silver directly plus an open route to the California coast to circumvent the Union blockade.

The battle took place near Greensboro, North Carolina. In it Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis with 2,100 men defeated General Nathaniel Greene with 4,500 men. But the British had such large losses it was a strategic defeat for them. Cornwallis was forced to withdraw from western North Carolina and eventually to move into Virginia and to Yorktown.

Greensboro is named for General Greene. There is now Guilford Court House National Military Park. There are several statues of the general.

The battle took place in the Province of Georgia in which the British defeated a Spanish invasion. This was a part of the War of Jenkins Ear over claims to St. Simon's Island.

The battle took place on the northern tip of Manhattan Island, where Harlem is, during Washington's retreating defense of New York from the British General Henry Clinton. Washington had about 9,000 men to Clinton's 5,000. Washington's defense was successful but eventually he was forced to withdraw into New Jersey.

As with other Wikipedia articles, this one has excellent maps of the battle at tactical and operational levels.

The battle took place when about 1,000 Cheyenne, Lakota and Arapaho (dog soldiers) attacked villages defended by about 60 soldiers and 50 civilians. The soldiers and civilians fled into Fort Rankin. The Indians went on to destroy settlements along the South Platte River. The Indians were seeking revenge for the Massacre at Sand Creek. After this they moved north.

This is one of the series of raids by the Indian 'dog soldiers' led by Charles Bent.

This small engagement in Pennsylvania was the opening battle of the French and Indian War. A company of Virginia colonial militia commanded by George Washington with some Mingo Indians ambushed a force of French Canadians. The Mingo chief, Tanacharison, may have killed the French commander, Jumonville. At any rate at Ft. Necessity the French managed to get Washington to sign a surrender document in French stating that Jumonville had been assassinated.

The battle was within South Carolina. The Patriot militia defeated the Loyalist militia. It has been called the largest battle between the American patriots and loyalists during the war. But there were also British regulars present. It was a small engagement in terms of numbers of participants, but very important strategically as it pushed the British back toward the coast.

Together with Concord these were the opening battles of the American Revolution

Also called the Battle of Loyalhanna. During the French and Indian War Colonel Henry Bouquet was building Fort Ligonier during his expedition across Pennsylvania to capture French held Fort Dusquense. The French sent part of the garrison and Indian allies to attack Bouquet. Bouquet was not present, but the French were beaten off and forced to retreat at which time they blew up Fort Dusquense.

There is a reconstruction of the fort as a model of its time, with usual sales shop.

This is also known as Custer's Last Stand and the Indian name is Battle of the Greasy Grass. The Lakota had their allies the Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho. Custer had his 7th Cavalry Regiment.

Custer's widow made a national hero out of him and a PR campaign. But he was a brash, know-it-all type who left his Gattling guns back in barracks.

The Union Army of General Joseph Hooker defeated the Confederate Army of General Carter L. Stephenson during the ChattanoogaCampaign. The following day Hooker defeated the Confederates at the Battle of Missionary Ridge

This is also called the Battle of Brooklyn or Brooklyn Heights. It was the first major battle of the Revolutionary War and a British victory as they had just landed to capture New York after being driven out of Boston. George Washington was the American commander, with many well known unit commanders and 10,000 troops. William Howe was the British commander, also with several famous subordinates and 20,000 troops.

The article here has an excellent plan diagram showing the European design of the fortification. The French commander, Francois-Marie Le Marchand de Lignery, sent out the entire garrison from Ft. Duquesne - 440 troupes de la marine and 150 Delaware Indians - commanded by Charles Philip Aubrey. The fort was held by Colonel James Byrd with about 2,000 American state militia. Colonel Byrd sent Maryland and then Pennsylvania militia outside the fort to confront the French, but they were driven back inside. The French attempted to attack the fort but were repulsed by artillery fire.

This is the link to the article on the fort itself.The article has photos of the reconstructed fort that show how strong it was - built on professional engineering designs with use of local (logs) rather than stone, but still defendable against anything but cannon

Andrew Jackson's greatest victory propelled him into the White House.

Andrew Jackson's successful defense of New Orleans from British attack, actually took place after the treaty ending the War of 1812 had been signed.

This was the final battle during the California Campaign in the Mexican-American War. Robert Stockton and Stephen Kearny had 600 mixed troops to Jose Maria Flores force of 200 including lancers and artillery.

The Wikipedia entry has a map.

General Grant with his Union Army defeated General Braxton Bragg's Confederate Army of Tennessee forcing him to retreat into Georgia. The Union lost 5,153 killed and the Confederates had 6,663 killed.

George Washington with units of the Continental Army attacked the rear of a retiring British force commanded by Sir Henry Clinton. As the battle initially was going against the Americans, Washington personally led a reserve in rallying and attacking.

Also the excellent article at britishbattles.com site. There is a famous painting of the battle.

This was the battle in Pennsylvania between French and Indian forces and General Braddock's British regulars and American militia units who were sent to push the French out of Fort Dusquense. The British regulars were used to fighting in Europe and were ambushed by the French and especially the Indians.

The battle and campaign is also described in entry on Braddock's Expedition and entry on his biography below. George Washington gained distinction by successfully conducting the retreat.

This was a 'battle' without fighting of casualties. During the Mexican-AmericanWar Commodore John D. Sloatcommanded the U.S. Pacific squadron ships at Monterey Bay, California, He landed sailors and marines and declared that California had been taken from Mexico. There was no Mexican garrison at the time so the local commander could do nothing. Commodore Sloat sent messengers to John Fremont at Sonoma and to Sacramento. Fremont's small force was integrated into the total American force.

This battle took place during the Taos Revolt during the Mexican-American War as a party of rebel Mexicans and Indians seized Mora, which is south east of Santa Fe. In this engagement the rebels drove the small American Army force, that was attempting to retake the village, off. Captain Hendly was killed.

Seeking revenge for the death of Captain Hendly, Union commander during the first battle, the American Army, a 200 man company, commanded by Captain Morin returned, this time with artillery and destroyed the village. The Mexicans fled. Captain Morin continued on to win the final battle, at CienegaCreek on 9 July 1847 when they were attacked once more by combined Mexicans and Pueblo Indians.

This battle at Nashville, Tennessee was part of the Franklin-Nashville Campaign. The Confederate Army of Tennesseecommanded by John Bell Hoodagainst the Union forces of General George H. Thomas. It was a decisive victory for Thomas and Hood's army was practically destroyed.

George Washington built this small 'fort' due to his expectation of French advance from Ft. Dusquense. It was not in a very suitable location for defense. The battle was fought in a rain storm and ended quickly when the French forced Washington to surrender and withdraw.

The battlefield is preserved along with a reconstruction of the 'fort'.

This was the British siege of the French fort during the French and Indian War.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This battle took place near Fort Stanwix (near Rome New York) when a relief force of colonial militia and Oneida Indians, commanded by General Nicholas Herkimer, was ambushed by Tories and Mohawk and Seneca Indians. It was one of the bloodiest battles of the war. The Colonial militia suffered more casualties, but the Ft. Stanwix garrison raided the Tory camp forcing the British to withdraw. General Herkimer was wounded at the outset and died of the wound later. The battle was also significant in that it began a 'civil war' between the Iroquois tribes.

The battlefield in a New York State and National Historic monument.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This was the French under Moncalm capture of the British frontier fort during the French and Indian War. Montcalm took 1700 prisoners and 121 cannon. The subsequent Indian attempt to massacre the British should have alerted Moncalm that he must take strong measures to protect his prisoners when he captured Fort WilliamHenry.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This was a partially successful British raid on Fort Ontario near Oswego during the War of 1812.

This was a significant battle in the Red River War. The U.S. Army commanded by Randal S. Mackenzieattacked a large Indian encampment in the Canyon by surprise. The Indians had been collecting supplies to last through the winter. The Army destroyed all the supplies and captured several thousand horses. The Indians had no recourse other than to surrender and go to reservations.

Ironically, the battle occurred near the present day, Quanah, Texas in which his mother, Cynthia Ann Parker was captured by Texas Rangers. The location is on the border with Oklahoma.

The American public, in typical attitude toward the Indians, was overjoyed at this 'rescue' which separated Cynthia Ann from her Comanche family. She never recovered from it.
The Wikipedia entry has an excellent, full account including the controversial aspects of the subsequent claims.

The battle was a meeting engagement between a band of Grose Ventres - Blackfeet returning north and a party of trappers led by Milton and William Sublette, Henry Fraeb, and John and Nat Wyeth with Nez Perce and Flathead allies on the southern edge of Pierre's Hole, on the Idaho - Wyoming border. In the battle 5 whites and 7 of their Indian allies were killed and 6 whites and 7 Indians wounded. The Gros Ventres lost at least 26 killed. But a few days later the Gros Ventres had a temporary revenge by killing some of the trapper party who were venturing east alone. But, by then short of ammunition, the Grose Ventre were massacred by Crows. William Sublette was wounded and returned to St. Louis to recover, then returned to built Fort William - aka Fort Laramie near South Pass.

The area is now a monument to the battle. This Wikipedia article describes the location of Pierre's Hole, the 1832 summer rendezvous that preceded it and the battle. It was indeed a famous rendezvous as the seeral competing parties were there: The Rocky Mountain Fur Company lead by William Sublette - The American Fur Company led by W. F. Vanderburgh and Andrew Dips; independents Jim Bridger, Joseph Meeks and Thomas Fitzpatrick plus Benjamin Bonneville and Nathaniel James Wyeth. Vanderburgh was killed by Blackfeet traveling soon after wards.

The battle took place near modern Point Pleasant, West Virginia, where the Kanawah River meets the Ohio River. when the Shawnee Indians lead by Cornstockattacked the Virginia militia camp. Lord Dunmore brought up a second militia unit and drove the Indians back. He then forced Cornstalk to sign a new treaty.

This attack on a Cheyenne camp initiated the Great Sioux War in which the Army forced the Cheyenne and Lakota to give up territory reserved for them in the Treaty of Fort Laramiein 1868.

This battle of the Revolutionary War took place after the American victory at Trenton. General Washington had returned to Philidelphia but then decided to recross the Delaware and surprise a small British force at Princeton. The battle became famous because in the beginning the American militia was defeated and was retreating when Washington personally led reinforcements into action and won. From there he moved into winter quarters while the British evacuated southern New Jersey.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com.

"The Death of General Mercer at Princeton" is a famous painting by John Trunbull. The equestrian statue of George Washington in Washington D.C. depicts him at the Battle of Princeton.

Also known as the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. After conducting a fruitless siege British General James Wolfe launched a surprise attack by climbing the cliffs and deploying his regiments outside the city. French General Montcalm decided to meet him in open battle. Both generals were killed and the British captured the city

There were many other battles for Quebec for which Wikipedia has entries.

This was the first major defeat of the American Revolution. The Colonials' Continental Army had invaded Canada and captured Montreal. General Richard Montgomery was killed, Benedict Arnold was wounded and Daniel Morgan was captured along with 400 men.

In the Mexican-American War Robert Stockton and Stephen Kearny led 600 troops from San Diego to Los Angeles where they encountered General Jose Maria Flores with 300. The Americans attacked and drove the Mexicans out. This is considered the decisive battle of the campaign, although it was followed by the Battle of La Mesa.

The Wikipedia entry has a map.

This battle between the U.S. Army and its Crow and Shoshone allies versus the Lakota and Cheyenne took place in Montana during the Great Sioux War of 1876. General George Crook's campaign was blocked by the Indians led by Crazy Horse. The Lakota and Cheyenne had won with the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) a sizable territory into which settlers were forbidden to trespass. But discovery of gold in the Black Hills brought in thousands of white gold hunters against the treaty provisions. Never mind, it was another treaty ignored. The campaign also included the Army loss at the Battle of Powder River.

This was the decisive battle of the Texas Revolution and independence from Mexico. It took place in Harris County, Texas. The Texian army was led by Sam Houston. The Mexicans were led by their president. Santa Ana, who was captured and forced to agree to lobby for Texian independence when back in Mexico City. The Texian army had 11 killed while the Mexicans lost 650 killed and practically all the rest wounded or captured. The battle was over in 18 minutes.

The Wikipedia entry includes a full discussion of the background and subsequent results of the battle.

In the Mexican War

The battle took place after the Treaty of GuadalupeHidalgo had ended the Mexican War. American General Stirling Price- governor of captured New Mexico attacked the city despite being told the war had ended. He was then told to return all property and retire into the United States. He later commanded in battle for the Confederate States.

These battles were engagements linked in one operational - strategic campaign in which the British commanded by General Burgoyne were moving south from Canada toward New York to sever the New England colonies from the south and west along the Hudson River corridor. The British defeat not only was a critical victory for the Americans within the colonies but also and critical, it encouraged the French to become very active supporters, sending both land and naval forces to reinforce the Americans.

There were separate but linked battles at Freeman's Farm and Bemis Heights. The Wikipedia entry has extensive details on all aspects of the campaign.

There are four battles listed at Savannah, two in the Revolutionary and two in the Civil War. This is about the British successful capture by Lt. Col. Archibald Campbell with 3,100 men against an inadequate patriot defense of 850 men.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This was the patriot effort to recapture Savannah from the British occupying force. The effort failed. The battle is significant because there was a significant French military force from Haiti consisting of 5000 troops and 42 ships. This was one of the most important French battlefield contributions of the Revolutionary War. And also important is that Count Pulaski was killed.

The fort built much later to defend Savannah from the sea was named for Pulaski.

The battle was between General Robert E Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and Major General John Pope's Army of Virginia. The Confederates won.

Lee's victory led him to conduct his campaign into Maryland at Antietam (Sharpsburg)

The Battle took place during the Union PeninsulaCampaign. This was General George McClellan'seffort to attack Richmond Virginia from the southeast from Fort Monroe. The Confederate defenders were commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston

This is also known as the Battle of Pittsburgh Landing took place in southwestern Tennessee. The Union Army of Tennessee was commanded by General Ulyssess Grant and the Confederate Army of Mississippi was commanded by General Albert S. Johnston with General P. G. T. Beauregard as second in command. When General Johnston was killed Beauregard too command and executed a successful retreat.

The battle took place south of Sterling, Colorado. Colonel Eugene Carr had 244 U.S. Soldiers and 50 Pawnee scouts. They attacked the Cheyenne village by surprise and the Pawnee (hereditary enemies of the Cheyenne) killed all they could including women and children.

Summit Springs is located in north-eastern Colorado, east of I-76 and south of the South Platte River.

The battle took place in Upper Canada during the War of 1812. It was an American Army victory over a British force and Tecumseh's Confederacy in which he was killed. The American Army was commanded by General William Henry Harrison.

The battle took place in North Carolina as part of General Longstreet's Tidewater Operations. It was a minor skirmish and the Confederate force was forced to withdraw, but they did manage to collect much needed food and supplies.

This battle is listed as Battle of Carillon because it was the British attack on the French defenders who had formed in front of their main field fortifications and the British lost heavily in a frontal attack without artillery. The fort was renamed Ticonderoga after this battle.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This was another British attack at Carillon, in the French and Indian War. This time British General Jeffrey Amherst brought 11,000 troops and occupied high ground outside Carillon with artillery. The French Garrison was compelled to abandon the fort and blow the power magazine. But the fort walls remained and Amherst occupied it and renamed it Ticonderoga.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

This was the capture of the fort during the American Revolution by EthenAllen and his Green MountainBoys. And Benedict Arnold. It was important because they then took the captured artillery to Boston to force the British withdrawal. And holding Ticonderoga enabled a Continental army advance toward Quebec. Arnold and Allen also captured Fort Crown Point and removed its cannon.

This took place when General Burgoyne was marching south toward Saratogaand invested the fort from high ground, just as the British had in 1759. American general Arthur St. Clairwas forced to abandon the fort. This created a political storm. St. Clair was subjected to court martial but acquitted. But, it did cost him his career.

This battle took place in Indiana between the forces of Governor William Henry Harrison and the Shawnee Indians led by Tecumseh. Harrison was advancing to attack the Indian settlement when he was attacked by a larger force of Shawnee and others. The Americans stood on defense successfully while the Indians ran out of ammunition and had to withdraw. Harrison then burned their village and proclaimed himself the victor. The general situation in which the Americans accused the British of supplying Indians with ammunition and other goods increased tension leading to the War of 1812.

Meanwhile one of the related results was the Harrison received the nickname of 'Tippicanoe' which proved very helpful in his successful political campaign to become President.

This was the surprise attack General Washington delivered after crossing the Delaware River from Philadelphia in dead of winter to rout and capture the Hessian garrison in Trenton. The small 'battle' was a critical victory.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

Confederate Brig. General Henry Hopkins Sibley brought his army of Texas Mounted Infantry from El Paso into New Mexico with the objective of capturing Santa Fe and then marching on to capture California. He was met by a smaller force of mixed Union regular cavalry, infantry and artillery and local militia and volunteers commanded by Colonel Edward Canby . Kit Carson commanded the First Regiment of New Mexico Volunteers in this engagement. The Confederates barely won - at least they were able to continue north as Colonel Canby prefered to remain at Fort Craig. But Sibley was eventually defeated and forced to retire into Texas.

The battle took place near Lancaster, South Carolina. it was between rebel ContinentalArmy force led by Abraham Bufordand loyalist units led by Banastre Tarleton. The battle was a confused affair with a truce but led to a massacre of the Continental troops.

The battle was the first major one of the Civil War west of the Mississippi in Missouri. It was another battle in which General Sterling Price participated, this time as one of the Confederate commanders. The battle was generally inconclusive but the Confederates forced the Union army to retreat.

Sterling Price was left as military governor of occupied Santa Fe in the Mexican War and led his troops north to overcome the Pueblo Indians in the Taos Revolt in 1847.

This was a battle north of New York that resulted from General Washington retreating north from Manhattan while being pursued by the British under General Howe. The British won again but did not manage to prevent Washington from escaping across the Hudson into New Jersey and on to Philadelphia.

See also the entry in Britishbattles.com

General George Washington had the Continental Army encamped about 16 miles north of Philidelphia. The battle took place when British General Sir William Howe moved from Philadelphia to attack on 4 December. The British skirmished but did not engage in a decisive assault. After that Howe went back to Philidelphia and Washington moved west to Valley Forge.

This battle did not take place in Wyoming State but rather in the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania during the American Revolution. The combination of British commanded by John Butler and Seneca and Mohawk Indians attacked the settlements in the valley as part of the broader British effort during the Revolution to harass the American frontier. The Patriot militia was routed and many scalps were taken. To combat this frontier warfare General Sullivan was sent with a sufficient force into western New York to destroy the Iroquois villages and crops.

The Wikipedia entry has illustrations and maps.

In this battle, part of the OverlandCampaign. Union General Philip Sheridan with his cavalry engaged Confederate cavalry led by J. E. B. Stuart. Stuart was killed. Sheridan had 12,000 to Stuart's 5,000 to conduct his raid behind the Confederate lines toward Richmond. Sheridan won.

He was a Canadian born American fur trapper and trader who moved to Taos and was awarded by the Mexican governor the immense land grant of 2,700,000 acres in northeastern New Mexico and south eastern Colorado known as the Beaubien-Miranda Land Grant. He was a successful business man in Taos and applied for and was granted Mexican citizenship (in order to own land). The grant was made in 1840 by Governor Manuel Armijo. Beaubien signed away a quarter of the grant to Charles Bent for help in settling the property. Settlement of the area was interrupted by the Mexican War in 1846. Then came the Taos Revolt in 1847 in which Beaubien's son, Narcisio, was killed along with Charles Bent and others. Beaubien turned to his sons-in-law, Lucien Maxwell and Jesus Abrejo to develop the huge property. In 1863 he sold the Colorado part of the grant to Governor William Gilpin..

This huge land grant made Beaubien the largest private land owner in America. It remained the largest private land holding after Lucien Maxwell inherited it from Beaubien - reaching 1.9 million acres. (Maxwell Land Grant) Today it has been divided into several still huge properties including the Boy Scouts of America training camp.

He was born in Louisiana of French descent. He became a Confederate General - was the one who initiated the war by firing on Ft. Sumpter and then commanded Confederate forces at Manassas prior to First Bull Run battle. Later he commanded Confederate forces in the Western Theater.

He was the manager of the first actual political party election campaign, that of Jefferson. He became a government clerk and was then rewarded with the designation as First Librarian of Congress

He was a mulatto born in slavery in Virginia and released by his owner. He moved far west into the Rocky Mountains and became a 'mountain man', fur trapper, explorer and legendary figure. He lived for years with the Crow Indians and found (among other things) Beckworth Pass through the Sierra Nevada mountains south west of Reno. He also fought in the Second SeminoleWar and was with Chivington at the Sand Creek Massacre in 1864. He also fought in Red Cloud's War. Actually he was everywhere. He worked for Charles Bent from 1840 and built trading posts. And helped suppress the Taos Revolt. He also was involved in the development of Pueblo, Colorado. In 1848 during the Gold Rush he was at Sonoma and then Sacramento, California. He died in Denver and is buried at Crow Indian place in Laramie, Wyoming.

He dictated a biography that was published in English and French in 1856. Amazing, he had yet 10 more years of adventure. But this book itself became an historical reference for the lives of 'mountain men'.

He was a leading lawyer in Delaware. There are 9 others with the same name. He graduated from College of New Jersey with classmate, James Madison. During the Revolution he was appointed Muster-master-general with the New York region. He served 4 terms in the Delaware General Assembly. In the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia he was a strong champion for the small states and then participated in the final compromise on the structure of the House and Senate.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Delaware.

He was a Whig Peer and politician. He was the fourth son of the 2nd Duke. In the House of Lords he opposed the Prime Minister, Sir Robert Walpole. He was successful as First Lord of the Admiralty but not as Secretary of State for the Southern Department. In 1756 he became Lord Lieutenant for Ireland.

He was the grandson of the 4th Duke and also a Whig Peer and politician. He was mainly interested in promoting agriculture. He never married and had no children.

He was the younger brother of the 5th Duke and another Whig Peer and politician. He served as Lord Lieutenant for Ireland (1806-07). He favored Napoleon and opposed British intervention in Portugal. He was the father of John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, who became Prime Minister.
Earl Russell (youngest son of the 6th Duke) was a Whig Reform politician who passed the Reform act of 1832. But he enabled the continuation of the great famine in Ireland. He advocated for Britian to declare war on Russia in the Crimean War. One of his grand sons was Bertrand Russell.
His son, Francis Russell, was the 7th Duke of Bedford.

He was a Congregational Minister and abolitionist. He was the brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe.

He was a Presbyterian Minister who led in the Temperance movement.

He was acting govenor of New York in 1709 -1710.

He was governor of New Jersey from 1747 to 1757. He aided the College of New Jersey. He fortified the upper Delaware River in defense in the French and Indian War. Thomas Pownall was appointed as his Lt. Governor (1755 - 1757) the first since Ingoldesby and last until the state recreated the office in 2010. Belcher died in office on 31 August 1757.

He was a well liked Tennessee, Whig politician who served in both U.S. House and Senate. He was briefly Secretary of War. He was the candidate for U.S. President of the Constitutional Union Party in 1860 as he sought to preserve the Union.

But after the attack on Ft. Sumpter, Bell joined the Confederate cause and tried to get Tennessee to join, but failed in that, after which he retired from politics.

He was born in New York City, the son of Robert Benson in a family that descended from Dick Benson who arrived in New Amsterdam in 1649. He graduated Kings College (Columbia) in 1765. He had many relatives who were officers in Army or Navy during the Revolution. He served as a leader in the New York legislature and in executive offices. He was delegate to the ContinentalCongress in 1784 and the AnnapolisConvention in 1786. He was elected to the House in the First and Second U.S. Congresses. He was appointed to the New York Court and then the U.S. Circuit Court.

He is listed among the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was the author of many books relating to the Revolution. He founded the New York Historical Society.

He was born in Charleston West Virginia. He moved with his parent's family to St. Louis. From there he established a remarkable frontier trading business with his brothers and CeranSt. Vrain. He traveled all over the plains from Texas and New Mexico to St. Louis and Wyoming. They built Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. He and Kit Carson married local sisters in Taos, Ignacia and Josefa. With his brother, William, operating the business from their fort, Charles had his home in Taos and an office in Santa Fe. When General Kearny used the fort as an intermediate supply point he and Charles did much business. Then, after Kearny had taken Santa Fe and New Mexico without a fight he appointed Charles as Civil Governor of New Mexico while he continued on to California. Unfortunately the Army did not leave sufficient troops to suppress any rebels. In 1847 Mexican ring-leaders organized a revolt in which they obtained manpower assistance from the Pueblo Indians near Taos. The rebels attacked Americans over a wide area. Charles decided to go without military escort from Santa Fe to his home and family in Taos. There he was murdered by the Indians. (See Taos Revolt) His second in command, SterlingPrice, soon brought artillery against the Pueblo town and suppressed the revolt. Besides those killed in the battle, the leaders were executed.

The Wikipedia entry is very short especially for such a renowned individual who played an important role in opening the west. Great detail about him is in David Lavender's book "Bent's Fort'.

He was William Bent's son by Owl Woman, who died in childbirth and raised by his second wife, Yellow Woman, a Cheyenne princess. Rather than spend more time as a child with the white side he lived with his mother as a Cheyenne. He was present in the camp at Sand Creek when the massacre commanded by Chivington took place and as a result he joined the Cheyenne 'dog soldiers' in relentless warfare on the U.S. Army and travelers. He was the leader of the attack on Julesburg.

He was wounded in a battle with Pawnees at Summit Springs and died of malaria in an Indian camp.

He was raised in St. Louis and joined Charles and William at the fort in 1832. He married in Mexico and had a son, Robert (Elfego) and Daughter, Rumalda. He helped build Fort. St. Vrain and managed it, where he met Fremont and Gilpin in 1844. He served as a scout for General Kearny's expedition into New Mexico He died of an illness at Fort Bent.

He was born at his father's base, Bent's Fort, Colorado. He was raised by his mother's sister, Yellow Woman (daughter of the Cheyenne chief), with her relatives, but he also attended boarding school in St. Louis. His mother died about 1847. In the Civil War he was a member of the Missouri state guard in the Confederate Army and fought at the Battle of Wilson's Creek, the First Battle of Lexington and the Battle of PeaRidge. He left the army and returned to St. Louis and then to his mother's family in the Cheyenne village. He and his brothers were in Black Kettle's camp at Sand Creek when Chivington conducted the massacre. From then on he and his brother, Charles, joined the Dog Soldiers and fought with the Cheyenne as they attacked white settlers throughout Colorado, Nebraska, Wyoming and beyond. They fought at the Battle of Julesburg and other battles and raids. Charles was wounded in 1867 at the Battle of Summit Springs and then died of malaria. In 1867 George quit fighting and became a valuable interpreter for the U.S. Army. He spent the remainder of his life on the Cheyenne reservation in Oklahoma. He was interviewed by anthropologists and authors and is cited as an important source for information about Cheyenne culture.. .

He participated as the younger brother in the family business with brothers, Charles and William. In 1826 he is recorded as traveling with them to New Mexico. In 1832 he is recorded (age 16) as again traveling back from Taos across Raton Pass into Colorado.

He was escorting a wagon train when he was attacked by Comanches and killed.

He was forced at gun point by Chivington to lead the Colorado militia group to the Cheyenne camp on Sand Creek and see the massacre in which two of his brothers, Charles and George, were survivors. He testified at the investigation held at Denver.

He with his brothers Charles and George and Ceran St. Vrain established a remarkable trading business across the plains between St. Louis and Santa Fe (and Taos) Mexico centered on the adobe fort they built on the north bank of the Arkansas River in what is now South east Colorado. He married into the Cheyenne Nation with Owl Woman and became a sub-chief. They had two sons and two daughters. He was responsible for many negotiations between the Cheyenne and Comanche and between the Indians and U.S. government. The Wikipedia entry on Owl Woman provides much more detail on life at Bent's Fort. After Owl Woman died in childbirth in 1847, William married her younger sister, Yellow Woman, with whom he had a daughter, Julia, in 1849 and a son, George.

He is the central personality about which David Lavender weaves a very complex yet clearly described story of the life and events in the opening southwest north of Texas between the 1820's and 1870. He continually exerted every effort to establish lasting peace between the competing Indian tribes and each other and between all of them and the U.S. government with little success..

This originated as a fur trading company collecting the furs trapped by 'mountain men' and then shifted into general trading between St. Louis and Santa Fe and with the Plains Indians for buffalo hides. They were second only to the American Fur Company in income across the plains. They moved their main operations from the north on the Platte River (but keeping Fort St. Vrain open) to the south on the Arkansas River where they built Bent's Fort and with depots and stores in Taos and Santa Fe. The partners were Charlesand WilliamBent and Ceran St. Vrain.

He was a powerful politician (Senator) from Missouri who championed western expansion. He was father-in-law of John Fremont.

The fort was built in south eastern Colorado on the Arkansas River, then the border between the U.S. and Mexico as a trading post and supply depot for the fur trappers ranging through the Rocky Mountains and the Indians trading in Buffalo hides. It was built by Charles and William Bent and Ceran St. Vrain in partnership with William in charge on site. And he remained as the proprietor and real owner until he blew it up. The Wikipedia entry on Owl Woman provides more detail about life at the fort.

It has been restored and opened as a National Historic Landmark. There are excellent books describing the fort's role in the fur trade and commerce on the Santa Fe Trail. In addition to being a base for trappers it was a main transit post for the company shipping business between St. Louis and Santa Fe. A list of the famous and infamous individuals who visited and used Bent's Fort is a cataloge of the creators of American society in the southwest - John Fremont, Stephen Kearny, Tom Boggs, Kit Carson, William S. Williams, David Waldo, Joseph Walker, Charles Warfield, Richen Lacy Wootton, Thomas Smith, John S. Smith, Lucien Maxwell, Susan, James and Samuel Magoffin, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Philip St. George Cooke, William Bransford, Carlos Beaubien, and more.

William Bent burned his old fort and built a new one of stone a few miles down the Arkansas River at a better location and near the Cheyenne camping grounds at Big Timbers.

The whole account of the Bent family, their fort and business and much more is told in David Lavender's excellent book - Bent's Fort. The fort is also included in Julie Gallagher's book - "Colorado Forts"

The barons were prominent Royalist supporters before, during and after the English Revolution. They were favorites of Kings Charles I and II.

He was the 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton and he was Lord Propriator of Carolina and for a time also held partnership in New Jersey with George Carteret. He was a Royalist supporter of King Charles I and fled into exile. After the Restoration he was a favorite of King Charles II.

He was the eldest son of Sir Maurice Berkeley and Elizabeth Killigrew - they were both stockholders in the Virginia Company of London. There was also a John Berkeley 1560 - 1622 who was a member of the Virginia governor's council

He was the 3rd Baron Berkeley of Stratton, succeeding his elder brother, Charles, who was 2nd Baron. Their father was John, 1st Baron.

He was governor of Virginia (1641 - 1652) after the Restoration again (1660 - 1677), and Lord Proprietor of Carolina as a favorite of King Charles II. He attempted to promote friendship with the Indians, which was opposed by many frontier colonists. This led to Bacon's Rebellion, which he suppressed with so much violence that he was recalled by King Charles..

He parents were Sir Maurice Berkeley and Elizabeth Killigrew. He was the younger brother of John Berkeley, who became 1st Baron of Stratton. He attempted to grow silk worms and many other crops in Virginia to expand the economy beyond tobacco.

He was appointed Governor of New Jersey colony in 1758 and then of Massachuttes Bay in 1760. As Governor of New Jersey he signed the Treaty of Eastonfor New Jersey and Pennsylvania. He was considered by the colonists to be a harsh administrator. He generated increased opposition to British policies and taxes. He was recalled to England whereupon Hutchinson became governor with even worse relations with the colonists.

He was a Virginia planter, whose plantation consisted of at least 37,000 acres. He was educated in England, married the sister of William Byrd II. He was active in politics and served in the Virginia House of Burgesses, representing Jamestown. He wrote an early history of Virginia.

He was a Pennsylvania politician and the father of Nicholas Biddle.

He was the President of the Second Bank of the United States and adversary of President Andrew Jackson.

This is the location on the Arkansas River William Bentchose to build his second fort, a stone structure, because it was a favorite place for the Cheyenne to camp since it had an unusual amount of trees as well as water. It was a few miles down stream from the original "Old Fort."

Big Timbers is located on the eastern border of Colorado with Kansas, on the Arkansas River. There is a museum there.

A commercial document - these are, in effect unredeemable paper money. They are used by government to borrow money by increasing the money supply. The result of issuing such bills is to reduce the value of the money in circulation. The States are prohibited by the Constitution to issue such bills, and the United States government is not authorized to issue them.

Such bills were issued by the Colonial governments with the results indicated. This is why they are prohibited by the Constitution. However, now, the Federal Reserve creates credit with a similar result through the banking system.

This is the popular name for the first 10 Amendments to the U. S, Constitution. The battle in the colonies over ratification of the Constitution proceeded with the colonial legislatures demanding various additional 'rights' for the people and states.

James Madison proposed that the demands of the state legislatures be met by inserting clauses Inside the Constitution as appropriate. He submitted 12 such amendments. But the Congress changed the idea to adding these as individual amendments. Of the 12, clauses 3 to 12 were ratified by the states as Amendments 1 through 10.

He was born in Kentucky and moved to Alabama, then Ohio and finally Michigan. Initially, from youth, he was a slave-holder but then became a strong abolitionist. He was a politician, publisher, lawyer, real estate developer and civic philanthropist. For a time he was active in the American Colonization Society advocating movement of Blacks to Africa, but then switched to demanding full abolition.

He was presidential candidate of the Liberty Party in 1840 and 1844

He was son of James G. He was also a lawyer, newspaper publisher, politician and developer. He was born in Kentucky, then moved with his father eventually to Michigan. He was Republican state senator, Lt. Governor, court judge and active in national politics.

He was a prolific author and orator from Conn. and strong supporter of Thomas Jefferson.

These were laws adopted by the white governments in the former Confederate states to suppress the rights of African-American former slaves. They were modeled on the pre-war 'slave codes' and limited the former slaves in many ways. But a general result was passage of 'vagrancy laws' whereby the Blacks could be charged and tried for most any kind of 'offense'. Then once becoming convicted criminals they could be forced into low paying work - thus avoiding the prohibitions of the Constitutional amendments.

The confederacy is comprised of four bands, three in Canada and one in Montana. In the 18th and 19th centuries, after they obtained horses and firearms, the Blackfoot expanded their territory at the expense of other tribes. They mainly fished and hunted buffalo. In the winter they sheltered in villages in the forests and in summer they moved onto the plains to hunt. After about 1730 they rapidly acquired horses which became the prized possession. Raiding other Indians was considered a valiant activity. Their main enemies were the Crow, Cheyenne and Lakota to the east and Nez Perce and Shoshone to the west. Early contact with the Hudson's Bay Company resulted in extensive trade for beaver pelts. They chose to remain out of the Indian Wars and refused to help when the Lakota asked for it. But later the U.S. cavalry massacred they anyway, When the buffalo were nearly wiped out by white intruders the Blackfoot had to accept Canadian and U.S. Government reservations and learn farming.

The Wikipedia article provides a detailed discussion of the languages and genealogy of the tribes and the members.

Black Hawk was a Sauk tribal leader whose rebellion was short lived but had significant consequences. The 'war' began when Black Hawk moved his tribe from Iowa territory into Illinois (probably peaceful intent) but was fired on by settlers. He then retaliated by defeating the whites at Battle of Stillman's Run. But the Indians were driven into Wisconsin where they were defeated and then virtually destroyed at Battle of WisconsinHeights and Battle of Bad Axe . Eventually Black Hawk was captured and served briefly in prison

Abraham Lincoln, Winfield Scott, Zachary Taylor and Jefferson Davis all saw service in this brief war.

This is an general, overall, name for a multitude of skirmishes, raids and small unit actions across Utah pitting the U.S. Army against elements of 16 Indian tribes led by Antonga Black Hawk.

He was born in the Black Hills of South Dakota but moved into southern Colorado with his tribe. He was a great leader of the Southern Cheyenne who did his best to maintain peace between the Indians and white settlers and U.S. Army. In 1854 he was made president of the central council of the Cheyenne. The relations between the Cheyenne and U.S. were governed by the provisions of the Treaty of Fort Laramie which guaranteed extensive hunting lands to the Indians. The Southern Cheyenne had their main villages along the Arkansas River and traded extensively with William Bent at his Bent's Fort. But the government did not enforce the treaty and especially after gold was discovered in Colorado the area was flooded by prospectors rushing across into the mountains and decimating the critical buffalo on the way. In 1864 Colonel Chivington sought political advancement by conducting the infamous massacre of the Cheyenne at Sand Creek north of Fort Lyon on the Arkansas. Black Kettle barely escaped this outrage although his wife was badly wounded. The government convened an investigation at Denver which Black Kettle attended, still working for peace. He managed to obtain a new Treaty of the Little Arkansas River in 1865 but this again was broken by the U.S. Government. The Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867 was also broken. General Sheridan sent Custer with the 7th Cavalry to attack Black Kettle. In 1868 while trying to escape the Battle of Washita River he was shot in the back by soldiers of the 7th Cavalry.

There is an area in western Oklahoma named for him. And there is a Black Kettle museum near where he was killed. The result of Chivington's and Custer's unprovoked destruction of the Southern Cheyenne camps was a generation of renewed warfare. The Cheyenne moved north into Wyoming. But joined the Lakota to continue warfare. The Cheyenne cavalry formed a major part of the Indian force that killed Custer at the Little Big Horn.

The Black Watch - that is the 42nd Regiment of Foot - The Royal Highlanders, fought in North America and the West Indies in the French and Indian War - Seven Year's War - and American Revolution. Originally raised at the 43rd Regiment in 1748 they were renumbered as the 42nd. The fought in many battles but are especially noted for their heroic storming of Ft. Carillon in 1758, where they had over 50% casualties, and their battle of Bushy Run in 1762, during Henry Bouquet's 'Highlanders relief of Ft. Pitt'.

See also for a detailed chronology of their service and for their current web page.

During the American Revolution they fought at LongIsland - HarlemHeights - Fort Washington- Brandywine- Germantown- Monmouth - and Charleston.

His father, Richard Bland I, was a member of the highest level of Virginia families and first arrived in Virginia in 1654. They built both the Berkeley and Westover plantations which are still functioning today. He was a Virginia planter and statesman - a cousin of Thomas Jefferson. And by marriages he was related to the Randolph and Lee families. He attended college in Virginia and Scotland. He was admitted to the bar in 1746. He sat in the House of Burgesses for years. He wrote many articles opposing Parliament's laws, but initially still believed that reconciliation was possible. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress (First and Second) from 1774 to 1775.

He was a journalist, newspaper editor with significant political influence.

His son, Francis Blair Jr. was a politician in Missouri.

He was a lawyer and considered to be one of the best trained jurists in the colonies. He provided Virginia support for Madison as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He served as judge on the Virginia Court of Appeals and was governor during the Revolutionary War. George Washington appointed him to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1789 on which he is credited with making significant decisions.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Virginia. He is considered to be one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.

He was the father of John Jr. He was a prosperous merchant and politician in Virginia. He was a member of the House of Burgesses and four times acting governor during absences of the governor.

He was a British professional officer, rising to the rank of Lt. General. He served in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. In that war he led commando raids on the French Coast.

He was a major speculator in western lands (Tennessee) and politician. During the Revolution, he was a paymaster. He was at the Siege of Charleston and Battle of Camden. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782 and to the Constitutional Conventionin 1789. He spent much time and effort going back and forth to the Congress in New York and his land holdings in North Carolina and the future Tennessee. He was appointed by President Washington as the Governor of the new Southwest Territory in 1790 when North Carolina gave it to the U.S. and established his capital at Knoxville. In 1791 he arranged the Treaty of Holston with the Cherokee Chief John Watts. He then proceeded to organize the necessary conditions by which Tennessee could become a State. He was U.S. Senator from the new Tennessee in 1796

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from North Carolina. He is listed as a Declaration Signer.
In 1796 he organized a conspiracy to manipulate land in Louisanna with the British. A damaging letter was found and he was impeached in Congress but resigned and escaped to Tennessee. His mansion home in Knoxville is in the Register of Historic places and is a National Historic Landmark.

He was born in Kentucky. He served in the War of 1812 then moved to Missouri in 1816. There he married Julia Ann Bent (1801 - 1820) a sister of Charlesand WilliamBent, and daughter of Silas Bent. They had two children, Angus and Henry. In 1823, after Julia died, he married Panthea Grant Boone (1801 - 1880), a grand daugher of Daniel Boone. In 1825-32 he was a Missouri state senator, from 1832 - 1836 he was Missouri Lt. Governor and from 1836 - 1840 he was Governor. After moving to California he was a member of that state's legislature.

He is known in history as the Missouri govenor who issued the executive order in 1838 to 'exterminate' the Mormon's who had moved into the state or drive them into Illinois. In 1846 he moved with his family to California in the same caravan as the Donner Party, but split with them at the Little Sqandy River before they took the disasterous route to their deaths. He then lived in Sonoma County - Bodega Bay.

He was born in Missouri, the son of Lilburn Boggs who married (his second wife) Daniel Boone's granddaughter, Panthea, in 1823. Lilburn then was a fur trader along the Missouri River. Thomas was the eldest of Panthea's boys. Thus, Charles, William and the other Bent boys were his uncles. He lived with his uncle, Albert Boone, who was another trader. As a teen ager, Thomas learned several Indian languages, then at age 16 or 17 he set out with the Magoffin brother's caravan to Chihuahua, Mexico. Upon reaching Bent's Fort he remained there and enter their employment, also in their business in Taos. There he met Kit Carson, whose wife was Josefa Jaramillo, sister of Charles' wife, Ignacia. There he also met Romalda Luna, Ignacia's daughter by a previous marriage and Charles Bent's step daughter. They were married in 1846. Then came the Mexican-American War. They fled to Bent's Fort, along with Charles's family and Josefa Carson. There Thomas met Stephen Kearny and Susan and Sam Magoffin. Expecting to be under General Kearny's protection they all returned to Taos. In December 1846 Kearny sent Thomas to Fort Leavenworth with dispatches where he arrived in Feb. 1847. By the time he returned to Taos in April his uncle, Charles, had been murdered in the Taos Rebellion, along with several others, but Romalda, Josepha, Ignacia and Teresia Bent survived. Next, Thomas was asked to go to California, which enabled him to see his father and brother, William, at Bodega Bay. After the Mexican war and through the Civil War Thomas developed ranches on the huge Maxwell Land Grant. In 1866 he established Boogsville (now gone) near present day Las Animas. With the opening of Fort Lyon the town prospered until bypassed years later by the railroad at Animas. Among the new residents was Kit Carson in 1867. Both Josepha and Kit Carson died in 1868 leaving their young children in Thomas' care.

William Boggs was one of his brothers, others were Albert, John, Theodore, George, and Joseph. His sisters were Minerva and Sophia..
There is much more to the story of Thomas Boggs than can be included here.

He was a Tory political leader in Parliament who supported the Jacobite Rebellion of 1715.

He is best known as a political philosopher.

Benjamin Louis Eulie de Bonneville was born in France and the family moved to the U.S. in 1803. He graduated the U.S. Military Academy in 1815 and became an officer in the U.S. Army. In 1824 he was transferred to Fort Gibson and then in 1828 to Jefferson Barracks. Beginning in 1832 on leave from military service he began exploration of the Rocky Mountains and further west into Oregon territory, then partially controlled by the British Hudson Bay Company. The party departed from Fort Osage, largely financed by John Jacob Astor. Joseph Walker was one of his lead guides. They attended the famous rendezvous of 1832. They created the California and Oregon trails. They built Fort Bonneville on the Green River. Due to his long absence he was decommissioned, but after much effort regained a commission as Major - he continued to serve on the western frontier into the Civil War and was promoted brevet brigadier general. He retired to Fort Smith, Arkansas.

During his lifetime he was made famous by Washington Irving's writing. But when looking at his actual explorations one has to believe that there were other 'mountain men' who did more, many of them in his employ or under his direction. But many places are named for him including Lake Bonneville and the Bonneville Salt Flats.

He became a legendary hero. He was indeed a pioneer, explorer, Kentucky fur trapper. He opened the WildernessRoad through the Cumberland Gap.

He founded Boonsborough in Kentucky - soon after, he was captured by Shawnee Indians, escaped, and warned about coming Indian attacks.
The Cumberland Gap is a lovely tourist destination today.

He was appointed 7th Royal governor of New Jersey in 1759 but did not arrive until May 1760. In 1761 he was moved to be appointed 28th Royal Governor of South Carolina.

He was an actor and then the assassin of President Abraham Lincoln in Ford's Theater in D.C.

He was a Confederate sympathizer - was tracked down and shot.

The official title is - The Lords of the Committee of the Privy Council appointed for the consideration of all Matters related to Trade and Foreign Plantations - With relation to the American colonies the Board established the Navigation Acts and in coordination with other offices dealth with Colonial matters.

He was a professional British naval officer. He served in the War of Jenkin's Ear, the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War. He assisted in the British victory at Louisbourg in 1758 and won the Battle of Lagos in 1759, which led to Quiberon Bay and the blockade of French reinforcements to Canada.

This company was founded by Francis Cabot Lodgeand was the first real factory in America - it produced finished cotton cloth. It was the first fully organized factory in the world in the sense of performing all the individual operations from raw cotton through spinning to final cloth using water power. The plans had been smuggled out of England where they were secret and export was forbidden. The Tariffof 1816 greatly assisted the factory in its early days.

The integrated system was quickly copied so there were soon many textile factories in New England. The original factory was declared a National Historic Landmark heightened in 1977.

This event took place during a local mob confrontation with British soldiers in which several colonists were killed or wounded. It was widely publicized by Sam Adams and Paul Revere which generated heightened colonial revolutionary activity throughout the colonies.

The soldiers were defended in court by John Adams.

One of the "intolerable Acts" that were the British response to the "Boston Massacre"

This was a major event in the movement of American colonists to revolution. It has become almost a mythological story in our history books but it was much more complicated than usually described. It is an example of government efforts to tax, to impose mercantilist political - economic measures and simply to assert authority and power. Specifically it also was about the economic interests of American smugglers of tea whose prices, even though not taxed, became undercut by the official prices of the East India Company, after it was subsidized by British government acts.

Some further references include the TownshendRevenue Tax of 1767 and the Tea Act. The event was triggered by the British Parliament and Lord North attempting to solve two financial problems at once - that of the Government budget from the Seven Year's War and that of the British East India Company pending bankruptcy from loss of income in India and from sale of tea.

He was a French admiral, explorer. In 1756 he was stationed in French Canada as aide to Montcalm. In 1757 he fought at the Battle of Fort William Henry and other battles. In 1759 he participated in the defense of Quebec and of Montreal. He was paroled back to France. In 1763 he was placed in command of French exploration ships to the Falkland Islands. In 1766 he was given by his king persission to circumnavigate the world, which he did by 1769. His party visited Tahiti and Solomon Islands and an island is named for him. In the American Revolution - 1779 - 1782 he commanded French naval forces and played an important role in the Battle of the Chesapeake and support of the siege of Yorktown..

The tropical shrub, Bouganville, is named for him. Napoleon made him a Senator.

He was a Swiss military officer who served in Dutch and then British armies. He was sent to America and fought during the French and Indian War. During that war he led the British campaign against Fort Duquesne and defeated an Indian ambush at Loyalhamma Creek, near which he later built Ft. Ligonier. Then his most famous campaign was to lead the relief expedition to break and Indian siege of Fort Pittduring Pontiac'sRebellion in 1763 - and then lead a further campaign into central Ohio area that ended the conflict. His tactics in Indian fighting became the model for subsequent engagements. Unfortunately, he died suddenly of Yellow Fever during his reassignment to command British forces in Florida.
His personal accounts have been republished frequently and are considered the best description of the period. They are available on the Internet.

His victory over a mass Indian ambush and battle at Bushy Run (see Battle of) is also known as the "Highlander's Relief of Ft. Pitt" as his force of 438 soldiers plus civilian teamsters consisted mostly of sub-units of the 42nd Foot (the Black Watch) and the 77th Foot (Montgomerie's Highlanders) plus elements of the 60th Foot, RAR - his Royal American Regiment.

As part of his methodical campaign to capture Fort Duquesne, Bouquet not only built the Forbes' Road but constructed forts along the way to protect it - Forts Bradford, Fort Ligonier and Fort Littleton and then he built the new Fort Pitt to replace Fort Duquesne.
These forts are today reconstructions and tourist destinations.

She was prize winning biographer.

He was born in Georgia and did not venture far west until 1860 when he joined the hunt for gold in Colorado. Failing there, he moved to Montana looking for gold and also failed. Then he had the idea to help miners rather than mine himself and began exploring to open better routes into Montana. He founded Bozeman, Montana. He was murdered while on the trail in 1867.

This key pass 15 miles east of Bozeman Montana is named after its opening by John Bozeman in 1863 as the route from Fort Laramie, Wyoming to Virginia City, Montana. But Sacagawea had led Captain William Clark through the pass in 1806. Now there is a transcontinental railroad with tunnel in the pass.

He was a British professional soldier and Commander in Chief of all British forces in North America. Nevertheless, he chose to personally lead an expedition to push the French out of the Ohio Valley in the French and Indian War. He advanced from western Virginia northwest through Maryland. He was killed in an ambush a few miles short of reaching Ft. Duquesne. George Washington participated in this campaign.

The successful British campaign to take Fort Duquesne was led by the famous Indian fighter, Colonel Henry Bouquet, who advanced directly from Carlisle west, building a road as he went. At that the French destroyed the fort and the British rebuilt one naming it Ft. Pitt. There is a memorial museum to Braddock's campaign at the site of the battle and there are articles and videos about it on the Internet

This web site has articles on dozens of British battles listed along the left side. Scroll to Braddock's defeat and find 11 essays with multiple paintings and maps the describe the entire situation and course of the campaign in great detail.

This link is to the Wikipedia article on the expedition. It is also discussed as the Battle of the Monongahela.

He was a Puritan who opposed the Church of England and became a leader and governor of Plymouth Colony. He signed the Mayflower Compact.

There is an amazing number of his descendents listed down to famous people today.

He was born in England into a family of printers. They emigrated to Philadelphia in 1685 and established the first printing press in 1686. He was repeatedly reprimanded and jailed there for printing articles the Quakers did not like. So he moved to New York. He established the first printing press in New York in 1693 and the first news paper in 1725.

His family and descendents continued in the printing business. Benjamin Franklin applied to him in New York and was sent on to his son in Philadelphia. Peter Zengerwas one of his apprentices for a time.

She was born in England, daughter of Thomas Dudley, and married Simon Bradstreet. They came to New England in 1630 during the Great Puritan Migration. She was a famous poet. In 1650 a collection of her poems was published in London.

He was born in Nova Scotia and entered the British Army in 1735. During King George's War he was captured by the French and held a year. He developed plans to capture Fort Louisbourg which was achieved in 1747.
Like so many other later well known British officers he participated in the disaster at Fort Carillon. But in 1775 he had success as separate commander at Fort Oswegoand then again by burning Fort Frontenac. He was promoted Colonel in 1764 and sent by Lord Amherst to relieve Fort Detroit during Pontiac's Rebellion. There his dealings with the Indians were considered negatively by British headquarters, thus harming his career. But he was promoted Major General in 1772 anyway. He is most renowned for successfully organizing the bateaux transport system on New York rivers and lakes that was essential in moving large quantities of supplies needed for British campaigns toward the Great Lakes.

He was a business man who because the Last Governor of Colonial Massachusetts.

His father, William, lived 1580 - 1661

He was from North Carolina and a graduate of West Point. He served in the Mexican war, especially at the Battle of BuenaVista. He retired in 1856 to become a Louisanna sugar plantation owner. At the Civil War he was called to be a Confederate general. He commanded a corps at Shilohand then was commander of the Army of Mississippi, and then the Army of Tennessee. He led at the Battle of Pereyville and Stones River were he lost. He won at Chicamauga due to arrival of Longstreet's Corps

He was personally aggressive and much disliked by subordinates and superiors. Finally he was recalled to Richmond in 1864-65 to be military advisor and then to lead the defense of Wilmington. Now historians rate him one of the worst of the very seniour generals in the war.

In 1845 he joined the caravan of the Bent- St. Vrain Company from Missouri to Santa Fe. He began work for them around Bent's Fort. In 1847 William Bent placed him in charge of a rescue party from the fort to Taos to join Ceran St. Vrain's mountain men to supress the Taos Rebellion. In 1849 he married Marcellin St.Vrain's former wife, a Sioux named Red.

He was a Mohawk Chief. He became a protegee and subordinate commander to Sir William Johnson. At age 13 he fought under Johnson at Lake George in 1755. Johnson sent him to Moor's School in Connecticut, where he was educated by Eleazar Wheeloock. Brant fought on the English side against Pontiac in 1763. He was secretary for Guy Johnson, William's nephew as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in 1774. During the American Revolution he led the Iroquois to support the British so was commissioned a colonel in the British army. He commanded Indian warriors in support of General St. Leger and with Tory militia raided the Mohawk Valley and into northern Pennsylvania. He fought at the Battle of Orskany in 1777 and Cherry Valley in 1778.

In 1775 he went to London where he was feted at court and met famous leaders. He visited London again in 1785-86 and obtained payments for the losses the Mohawk had sustained.

He was a member of a very long, wealthy, and powerful Virginia landed aristocracy from his grandfather, Robert "King" Carter (1662 - 1732) to many descendents who fought for the Confederacy in the Civil War. He was a representative in Virginia House of Burgesses from King William County in 1761 and also county sheriff, and colonel in militia and vestryman. In 1775 he was sent to the Continental Congress. During the Revolution he invested and donated money to the cause. He lost 1/2 of his 14 ships and lost loans to Robert Morris whom he sued. At one time he owned 12,000 acres and 165 slaves, but after the war was much poorer.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from Virginia. He is listed as a signer. Many of his descendents served as officers in the Confederate army.

He was born in England and moved to Maryland as a minister of the Church of England for the Bishop of London. Although he did not remain in the colonies he is credited with establishing libraries.

During the Revolution he was a colonel in the New Jersey Continental Line at Brandywine, Germantown and Monmouth. He then was a justice in the New Jersey Supreme Court. He was a delegate to the ConstitutionalConvention. There he was a member of the committee that wrote the final draft - fleshing out details on procedures and specifics. He died while in office as a Justice appointed by President Washington to a Federal District Court.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from New Jersey. He is listed here.

He was a lawyer and politician from Kentucky who was for 'states' rights' and was the candidate for U.S. president of the Southern wing of the Democratic Party in 1860. When the Civil War began he joined the Confederate army, fought at the Battle of Shiloh (loosing) and in others with some successes.

He was the 14th and youngest Vice President of the U.S., 1857 - 1861. He became a major general in the Confederate Army and in 1865 was appointed Confederate Secretary of War.

The actual location of the engagement known as Battle of Bunker Hill.

The battle is also listed here.

He was a leader of the Puritans who crossed on the Mayflower and then became a leader of Plymouth Colony.

He was a leader in Cambridge, Mass. in 1632.

He was a 'mountain man' They were the independent trappers and explorers of the far west - Rocky Mountains clear to California and Oregon who later led American settlers west. For years he appeared everywhere throughout the mountains.

He particularly established good relations with the Shoshonee (unusual) and even brought their delegation to the signing of the Treaty of Fort Laramie.

These were executive orders from the British King's Council that gave instructions on economic warfare against Napoleon. The orders of 1807 were especially offensive to the Americans over their shipping regulations.

This term is a phrase used to describe a position toward interpreting the Constitution. It favors considerable latitude in constructing the powers of the government. Hence, a broad construction is used in an effort to expand the powers of the Federal govenment under the Constitution. It usually makes use of the idea of implied powers.

Today this is considered as 'judicial activism' as opposed to strict construction. The term was used during the Civil War.

He was the English Commander in Chief of military forces in the colonies and acting Governor of New York (1681 - 1683)

He was the son of the 1st duc de Broglie and a professional army officer who served in the War of the Austrian Secession, the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution and the French Revolution.

He was a farmer, surveyor and local politician including various offices up to city mayor. His Quaker pacifism prevented him from serving in the armed forces but as surveyor he prepared maps for General Washington. His neighbors sent him to the state legislature from which, in turn, the representatives sent him to the Constitutional Convention. He was an advocate for a strong central government. He returned to Delaware and continued to be active in local politics and business and support of education.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Delaware. He is listed here.

He was a Mississippi politician who held many offices and was especially popular as state governor - 1844-48. He was a strong supporter of slavery.

He was a civilian living in upstate New York but in the militia when the War of 1812 began. He rapidly rose in rank and command with major wins to become major general. And after the war he remained a M.G. and was appointed the Commanding General of the U.S. Army in 1821.

Among his victories were the Battle of Sacket's Harbor and Battle of Chippawa. He was wounded in the Battle of Lundy'sLane.

He was an 'abolitionist' who lead raids and battles in Kansas and then sought to generate a slave rebellion by seizing the US government arsenal at Harper's Ferry Virginia. He was captured by Robert E. Lee and executed.

He financed some of the first American factories with spinning machines. He was an abolitionist and cofounder of Brown University. He is considered one of the leading developers of the Industrial Revolution in the United States.

He was a poet and journalist and also newspaper editor active in politics.

He was the last President born in the 18th Century and the only President to be a life-long bachelor.

He was the 15th President of the United States

He was a Civil War general

He was a lawyer and politician in New York State. He spoke Dutch and is only president to speak English as a 2nd language. He entered politics very young and served in may offices. He is credited with creating and organizing the modern Democratic Party while serving to assist Andrew Jackson.

He was the 8th VP of the U.S. 1833 - 37 and Sec of State, 1829-31. He was also the 8th President of the United States. He attempted to continue Jackson's policies through the Panicof 1837, but was defeated for re-election in 1840 by William Henry Harrison. In 1844 he lost to James K. Polk in the Democrat party nomination. In 1848 he ran again for the Free Soil Party and lost.

He was born in Scotland and immigrated to U.S. in 1819. He was an engineer and business man who built the Burden Iron Works in Troy, New York. He improved iron plows and invented a cultivator. He invented a machine for mass producing horse shoes that was adopted world wide. He also invented production of rail road spikes that greatly assisted in the building of railroads

Benton Iron Works is now a historical landmark and museum.

He was a British general who fought in the Seven Year's War in Europe. Assigned to lead a campaign in the American Revolution he conceived of plan to invade from Canada. He and his army were trapped in the Battles at Saratoga N.Y. and forced to surrender.

After the war he became a play write and Member of Parliament.

He was an Irish political leader and political theorist who became a Whig MP and was pro-American colonists.

He wrote and spoke against the excesses of the French Revolution. He remains a favorite 'conservative' theoretician.

He was governor (1720 - 1727) of New York and New Jersey until shifted to be governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire.

He graduated from West Point in 1847 and became a Union general in the Civil War- He was successful leading brigades, such as at Antietam, and at Knoxville, but failed as commanding general at the Battle of Fredericksburg and when leading the assault on the Crateroutside Portsmouth.

He became famous for his extravagant facial hair, from which the term 'side burns' was derived . After the war he was president of the National Rifle Association

He was born in New Jersey and graduated from Princeton whose president was his father. He studied law and served in the Continental Army during the Revolution.

He was elected Vice President in 1800 as a Republican. He killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel and was charged with treason over his escapade on the Ohio River but was acquitted.

See Battle of Bushy Run (above) The decisive British defeat of Indians while relieving their siege of Ft. Pitt during Pontiac's Rebellion.

Also known as "The Highlander's Relief of Ft. Pitt" or Bouquet's relief of Ft. Pitt. There is a park that preserves the site of the battlefield - also paintings, and even movies on You Tube for reenactments in 2017 and earlier.

He was an influential Congregational Minister.

He was a Tory politician with family connections and with many offices on Parliament - finally was Prime Minister 1762 - 1763, but could not serve in the House of Commons. He was a favorite of King George III. He was attempting to improve British finances after the Seven Years' War but King George changed his views and Butte was on the outs.

He was a lawyer who became a Union general during the Civil War and was much detested for his actions against civilians.

He was born in Connecticut and moved to New York where he learned several Indian languages. He worked as an interpreter in the fur trade. During the French and Indian War he served under Sir William Johnson. He was with Abercromby at the Battle of Fort Carillon and with Bradstreet at Fort Frontenac and with Johnson at the Battle of Fort Niagara. After the war he became a wealthy land owner and was second only to Johnson in charge of Indian Affairs. . During the American Revolution, he participated in the defense of Montreal against Ethen Allen. He was a loyalist who led his own unit called Butler's Rangers in northern New York with Seneca and Cayuga Iroquois warriors against the patriots. He supported Burgoyne's campaign toward Saratoga- and also Mohawk Indians on raids.

He was a wealthy slave owning plantation leader in South Carolina who was very active politically in the Congress and the Constitutional Convention. He advocated for the 3/5 count of slaves in allocating state votes. He became a U.S. Senator from South Carolina.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from South Carolina. he is listed here.

He was born in London. His father was a goldsmith. he moved to Virginia in 1669. He was granted 1,200 acres. He took part in Nathaniel Bacon's Rebellion. He also built the James River Fort. He became wealthy and expanded his planations which he left to his son..

He was born in Virginia and educated in England. He was a plantation owner in Virginia and founder of Richmond. He served in the House of Burgesses. He commanded militia regiments and led surveying expeditions west. He promoted bringing Swiss settlers to Virginia.

He was born in Virginia and inherited a huge estate from his father and grand father. But he chose military service rather than much politics in the House of Burgesses. He fought in the French and Indian War. He volunteered to lead the new Virginia militia regiment in 1758. He and George Washington were with General Forbes on his campaign against Fort Dusquense. In 1759 Virginia only raised one regiment and William Byrd commanded it for further operations at Fort Pitt, but Pennsylvania objected to having that critical fort controlled by Virginians. In 1761 he commanded Virginia's regiment in the war against the Creeks, Chickasaw, Catawa and Iroquois in the Carolinas and west. He built 80 miles of road between Chiswell's Fort on Virginia's border and the Holston River in North Carolina. Because of the Amsterdam financial panic in 1763 Byrd lost over 20,000 pounds of debt, while Washington being more astute lost only 2000. In 1767 he was involved with many other southern Virginia planters in huge financial disaster from the Robinson financial losses due to failure to collect taxes..

He had 5 children with his first wife and 10 more with his second wife. Hi lost most of his property from expenses or gambling and committed suicide in 1777.

A group of persons engaged in more or less secret intrigues. The Radicals who controlled Congress during Reconstruction did so sometimes by preparing their positions in advance in exclusive meetings with one another. The Committee of Fifteen took on some of the aspects of a cabal.

He was born in France and became a merchant. He moved to Charleston, South Carolina, then New Orleans and finally St. Louis, Missouri, where he married Julia Gratiot in 1799. By 1801 he was becoming successful in the fur trade with Indians. For a while he worked with John Jacob Astor, and then formed his own company. He built a trading post - fort Robidoux - on the upper Missouri. As the fur trade declined he formed a company with Bernard Pratte. He became a wealthy banker and distinguished citizen in St. Louis

He was a British noble supporter of King Charles I - see also entry for George Calvert.

He was born in Genoa, Italy (name Giovanni Caboto) but moved to England to pursue his idea of sailing west to reach the Orient. He sailed for the King of England and claimed lands of the coast of what is now Canada.

He was from South Carolina, and one of the most prominent and powerful politicians in pre-Civil War America. He was vociferous champion of 'states; rights' and fought against tariff's and for slavery.

He was the 7th Vice President of the United States. He is still attacked politically today as the champion of slavery.

He was a politically active journalist and publisher.

He became the 4th Baron Baltimore in 1715, second son of Charles, the 3rd Baron. His father, Charles the 3rd Baron lost his title as Proprietary Governor of Maryland due to being Catholic. He was serving in the army of King James II when he was outlawed for being Catholic. In 1713 he converted to Protestantism in order to regain his titles. But this infuriated his father, Charles, still 3rd Baron Baltimore. So when George I became king Benedict Leonard applied for reinstatement, which was granted to him as 4th Baron, but he died soon after. King George restored the Proprietary ship to his son, Charles Calvert, 5th Baron Baltimore.

He was the 15th Proprietary Governor of Maryland in 1727, appointed by is elder brother, Charles the 5th Baron replacing Captain Charles. He died early while on a ship.

He was the eldest son of George Calvert (Cabot) and became 2nd Baron Baltimore on the death of his father. He became lord proprietor of Maryland and governed by proxy through Leonard. They had to struggle through the results of the English Civil War which included repeated conflicts in the colony between Puritans, regular Protestants and Catholics, plus those between Virginians and Marylanders.

He was the son of Cecil and the 3rd Baron Baltimore. He had to struggle through the results of the Glorious Revolution that exiled his patron, King James II and brought in King William III and Mary.

He was the son of Benedict Calvert and became the 5th Baron Baltimore and the 18th proprietary Governor of the Province of Maryland upon the death of his father in 1715.

He was the 14th Proprietary Governor of Maryland 1720 - 1722. when the family had recently regained control. He was appointed Governor by his cousin, Charles, 5th Baron Baltimore.

He was made a peer from Ireland with title 1st Baron Baltimore. He was given by King Charles I, first the proprietorship over a colony to be founded in Newfoundland. When climate proved that unattractive the title was moved to Maryland. But he died before taking possession. (see Cecilius)

He was the second son of George Calvert and became the proprietary governor of Maryland as the local agent for his half brother, Cecil..

Also termed "Reformed Tradition". It was one of the major religious doctrines in colonial America.

He was a French theologian who moved to Switzerland. He was a prolific author of doctrines opposing Catholicism which formed the basis of Calvinism.

He was a New York State politician.

The group of islands 100 km west of Morocco. It was known from Phoenicians, Greek and Roman times. The islands were occupied by the Spanish beginning in 1402. They became a main stopping point for Spanish galleons for using the northwest trade winds to reach America. The Wikipedia entry is extensive.

He was born in Kentucky and graduated the United States Military Academy in 1839. He served in the Second Seminole War and the Mexican-American War in which he received several brevet promotions. He served in the UtahWar (1857-58). At the outbreak of the Civil War he was commanding Fort Defiance in Arizona. Then he commanded the Department of New Mexico. He was defeated at the Battle of Valverdebut won at Glorietta Pass, forcing the Confederates to retreat into Texas. In 1863 he commanded the Harbor of New York City and in 1864 as a major general commanded the Department of the Western Mississippi. In 1865 he captured Mobile, Alabama. After the war he commanded a series of military districts in the south until 1872 when he was sent to command the Pacific Northwest just in time for the Modoc War. He was assassinated during an effort to conduct a peace party. He was the only U.S. Army general killed in the Indian Wars.

Fort Canby and other places are named in his honor. At his funeral in Indiana 4 US generals took part, Sherman, Sheridan, Wallace, and McDowell.

He was a Tory Member of Parliament who held various cabinet positions. He was Foreign Secretary who supported the Monroe Doctrine. He opposed the European powers and their Holy Alliance.

He was a Scot who moved to the Colonies and became a leader in Revolution and the Constitutional Convention.

The term refers to one of the elements of production in economic theory, and refers to wealth used to produce goods. It may be money, buildings, machinery, raw materials, or other. Capital goods are also described as productive as opposed to consumer goods.

Capital is created by retained income from production, that is when not all that which is produced is consumed but some is retained for the purpose of use in increasing future production

He was a British military officer and administrator. In 1742 at age 17 he was commissioned an ensign. In 1747 he fought in the War of the Austrian Succession. In 1757 he fought in the Seven Years' War on the continent. He went with General Wolfe to Quebec where he was wounded. He was twice governor of the province of Quebec. He defended Canada from the American campaign of 1775-76. In 1782 he was made commander in chief of all British forces in North America with headquarters in New York City. There is supervised the evacuation of all British forces and also loyalists and Negro slaves who had sought refuge with the British.

He was a Scottish philosopher.

A Northerner who came into the South after the Civil War seeking his fortune. Carpetbaggers were usually despised by southern whites because they took advantage of Reconstruction programs to gain wealth and political power while claiming to help the freed slaves.

The pejorative term came from southern notice of the cheap, carpet made, luggage of these interlopers.

He was a very wealthy Catholic land owner in Maryland who signed the Declaration of Independence as Charles Carroll of Carrollton and became a U.S. Senator.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as a delegate from Maryland. He is listed as a signer.

He was a member of the wealthy and extensive Carroll family. Charles Carroll was a cousin and his younger brother, John, was first Catholic Bishop of Baltimore and founder of Georgetown Univ. He supported the Revolution financially. He was a delegate to both the Confederation Congress and the Constitutional Convention, He is one of only five signers of both the Articles of Confederationand Constitution. At the Convention in Philadelphia he supported a strong federal government with his friends Washington and Madison. Returning home, he was active in Maryland politics until his death.

He signed the Articles of Confederation and he signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Maryland. He is listed here.

He was a brother of Daniel Carroll. He studied at the Jesuit's College of St. Omer in Flanders. In 1753 he entered the novitiate in preparation to becoming a Jesuit priest. He was ordained in 1771. In 1773 Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) much to Carroll's dismay. But he returned to Maryland in 1774 where he established the first Catholic parish in America. In 1776 he was a member, along with Benjamin Franklin and Samuel Chase, of a delegation sent by the Continental Congress to Canada in hopes of persuading the Canadians to join in rebellion. The idea was that having a Catholic priests along might persuade the Catholics in Quebec. But the mission was unsuccessful. Back home he became the first bishop and then archbishop.

He was a politician in Tennessee who was an officer in the state militia and who fought in the Creek War, rising to the rank of major general. He formed and led Tennessee troops to support Andrew Jackson, holding the center of the defense line against the British at the Battle of New Orleans. He became a very popular state governor.

His full name is Christopher Houston Carson. He was born in Kentucky and the family moved to Missouri when he was about 1 year old. They bought land for a farm. His father died when he was 8. He was sent to work in a saddlery located at the terminus of the Santa Fe Trail. In 1826 he ran away with a caravan of trappers to Santa Fe whereupon Kit settled in Taos. By age 19 he was ready (having learned the languages and skills) to be a professional trapper in the mountains with such experienced men as Jim Bridger. In 1829 he was with a party that went as far as California from Sacramento to Los Angeles and back along the Colorado River. In 1831 he went north with a party through the Rocky Mountains. On occasion he had to contend with Indians whom he killed and scalped or Grizzly Bears which he often avoided. He particularly hated the Blackfoot, whom he shot on sight. But around 1840 the beaver pelt market collapsed when European male fashion switched to silk hats. So in 1841 he was hired at Bent's Fort where he switched to hunting buffalo, deer and antelope. In 1842 he happened to meet John C. Fremont who was preparing to explore the routes clear to California, Fremont hired him at the magnificent sum of $100 a day. He led the party over South Pass. Fremont's published report made Carson famous. In 1843 he again led Fremont, this time to the Columbia River. In 1845 he again led Fremont to Oregon and California. This time Fremont helped instigate the separation of California from Mexico. After the Civil War he continued to serve in various capacities as a colonel in the US Army campaigning in the Indian Wars..

In 1843 he married Maria Josepha Jaramillo, sister of Charles Bent's wife. From 1847 on Carson became an international hero with the publication of numerous dime novels about him in many languages. During the Mexican War Carson helped General Kearny in California. During the Civil War he was commissioned a colonel of New Mexico Volunteers.
His home in Taos is now a museum with his belongings. He is buried in Taos. The Nevada capital, Carson City, is named for him. There are statues of him and other places named for him.

But of course with the current politically correct mania seeking to destroy all American heroes Carson has come under the usual violent attacks.

Robert was nicknamed "King" Carter due to his great wealth and aristocratic manner. At age 28 he entered the General Assembly. He acted as local agent for Thomas, Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He used this office as an investment media of his own in buying land throughout Virginia and to the west. On his death he left heirs 300,000 acres and 1,000 slaves and 10,000 British pounds cash.
When Lord Fairfax learned what his agent was able to do, while correctly doing his job, Fairfax sent his own nephew over to be the agent at a fixed salary, and later moved to Virginia himself.

Robert's father was John Carter (1613 - 1669).

His plantation home is still open as a historical landmark.

He was a member of the Mayflower Separatist - Puritan passengers who wrote the Mayflower Compact and who was elected the first governor of the colony. Historians have traced him back to England and Leyden in the Netherlands. He was very wealthy and paid for much community expenses. He obtained the contract from the Virginia Company to finance the voyage and establish the colony. He had 5 servants among the passengers and colonists. He died in April of May 1621 along with most of the other colonists.

See Plymouth colony, the Puritans did not create their colony where they had originally intended. Captain Myles Standish was the military commander charged with organizing defense.

He was one of the proprietors of the Carolinas, along with John Locke and John, Lord Berkeley and also of New Jersey by grant of the Duke of York in 1664.

He was a vice-admiral and royalist - governor of Jersey who was titled 1st Baronet. - Carteret town in N.J. is named for him.

Philip Carteret was appointed by his brother, Sir George Carteret, and Lord Berkeley of Stratton to be the first governor of New Jersey in 1665 until 1672.

Philip was again Governor - 1674 - 1682. He refused to relinquish his position when New York Governor Andros demanded it. Carteret was arrested and beaten. He was acquitted at trial but his injuries led to his early death 2 years later.

He was a Breton seaman, explorer who made his first voyage to the New World in 1534. He mapped the St. Lawrence river area. He named the new place "Country of Canadas" from an Iroquois Indian name.

They were a Siouan speaking native nation that lived in South Carolina. They were for years friendly with the white colonists. They fought the Iroquoian and Cherokee and Algonquian speaking Shawnee. They allied with the American revolutionists against the British during the Revolution.

He was born in Pennsylvania. As a young man he became interested in Native American Indian artifacts and then in the peoples themselves by his mother who told him stories about her life when she was captured by Indians. He became an excellent artist. Then he made five trips across the plains to the Rocky Mountains and was the first white artist to create numerous paintings of Indians in their original settings and clothing. He also traveled to Central and South America. His first tour across the plains was with General William Clark in 1830. He also collected artifacts. In 1839 he took his large collection for a tour in Europe.

Catlin's paintings are well displayed in the Wikipedia entry. They are also major illustrations in Bernard DeVoto's book - Across the Wide Missouri, in which Catlin's travels are discussed.

He was a military officer and politician. He was Governor of Michigan Territory and Secretary of War.

A meeting of members of a political party to nominate a candidate. During the first third of the 19th century, presidential candidates were usually nominated by a congressional caucus of those belonging to a particular party. The practice of nominating candidates by caucus at the local level continued in some states into the 20th century.

The first written mention of the term is from the colonies in 1763 - meaning "a smoke-filled room'

They were one of the original 5 Iroquois Nation living around the Finger Lakes in N.Y. between the Onondaga and Seneca tribes. The various Iroquois tribes or sections, during the American Revolution fought on both sides, sometimes with British and sometimes with Americans, and often neutral.

But in 1777 the Iroquois raided throughout New York, Pennsylvania and further south. Congress ordered General Washington to eliminate the threat. In 1778 he sent a large force under General Sullivan to accomplish this. They burned many Cayuga villages and destroyed crops. The Indians were decimated and many fled west.

He was a French Canadian officer of the marines. In the 1730-40's in Louisiana he fought the Chickasaw successfully. He commanded the French at Forts Michilimackinac, Detroit and Niagara in succession. In 1749, during King George's' War, he conducted the French expedition to secure the Ohio River Valley from British, Virginian and Pennsylvanian intruders. This was the famous 'lead plate' expedition as he buried lead plates as he went proclaiming French ownership. The Iroquois promptly stole some of the plates. Two were found in the 20th century. He went by canoe and barge down the Ohio past the 'forks' and as far as the Scioto River. After that he returned to Montreal.

He was a French soldier, explorer, geographer, and colonial leader. He went to Canada in 1603. He founded Quebec and is called "The Father of New France".

He was a Unitarian minister and theologian. His grand father was William Ellery.

He was the son of King James IV of Scotland who became King James I of England. He was opposed by Parliament mostly over taxes but also religion and was executed. The political conflict in England had significant effects in the American colonies.

He was the son of King Charles I, and fled into exile at the death of his father. He was restored as King but again driven out in the "Glorious Revolution" again largely over taxes and religion. He also played important political role in the colonies through his selections of governors and proprietors.

A term used to describe companies which possessed a monopoly by government charter. The term was often used to describe national banks. The Jacksonians opposed chartered monopolies and generally favored free enterprise.

The Wikipedia article discusses first examples from early British history.

He was an Ohio politician, governor and senator. and Lincoln's Sec. of Treasury in which position he made major significant fiscal improvements. He became 6th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, 1864 - 1983.

He was born in Maryland. His father was a clergyman. He became a lawyer in 1761 He served in the state legislature for 20 years. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress. Then he was a judge in Maryland in the 1790's before being appointed by President Washington to the Supreme Court. The Jefersonian Republicans in 1804 charged him with eight articles of impeachment but the Senate failed by 4 votes to convict him.

He was active even before the Revolution in opposing the Stamp Act and signing the Declaration of Independence and also serving in the Continental Congress. He is listed with the signers here.

A condition in which a person is owned as the property of another. Chattels are a species of property, namely, movable property. Since Negro slaves were movable property in America, their status was described as chattel slavery

They lived in SW North Carolina, eastern Tennessee and parts of Georgia and South Carolina. They spoke an Iroquoian language and there is controversy over their origins. The colonists considered them one of the Five Civilized Tribes, since they were agricultural, lived in large villages and readily traded with the settlers. They today are the largest of the recognized Indian tribes.

They were active participants in wars with and against the British or colonists.

The Supreme Court took the case in which the Cherokee Nation claimed that the State of Georgia was infringing on its rights. In a real 'catch 22' decision the court refused to take the case on its merits claiming that as a 'tribe' the Constitution did not consider it a valid party at court. In a later decision the Court reversed itself, ruling that not only Georgia's laws but the federal Indian Removal Act were unconstitutional. But President Andrew Jackson didn't care. He noted that the Court didn't have troops so sent the Army to remove not only the Cherokee but also the Creek, and other Indians from east of the Mississippi to Oklahoma.

This event was the attack of the British warship, Leopard by surprise on the U.S. Chesapeake in American waters. The American commander surrendered and the British boarded and took 4 sailors they claimed were deserters. The incident created a huge public uproar with demands to declare war on England, but President Jefferson sought diplomatic methods. He pushed through the Embargo of 1807 ( like sanctions) but this merely hurt American business and trade. But the public animosity toward Britain eventually led to the War of 1812

The British were hunting for an arresting deserters from the Royal navy and finding many in the United States. They found some and by named tracked them to being crew in the U. S. Chesapeake. One man was hung as a deserter and the others were punished and eventually released.

Today the Cheyenne are split into the Southern living in Oklahoma and the Northern living in Montana. But when the Europeans first arrived the Cheyenne were living in what is now Minnesota. The migrated into the Dakotas where they found horses and then introduced them around 1730 to the Lakota. Once with horses they became buffalo hunters and continued south and west into Colorado and Kansas, being pushed out by the Lakota. The Cheyenne traditional enemy was the Crow tribes and their ally the Arapaho tribes. When Charles and William Bent built their fort on the Arkansas River some Southern Cheyenne made their main camp nearby and engaged in trade. Then their enemy became the Comanche and Apache from the south.

A powerful Indian tribe residing in western Tennessee, and Mississippi and east into the mountains. They lived in fortified villages and were well armed.

They were among the 'civilized tribes' and allied with the British against the French.

This is the overall description of the lengthy conflict between the French and their Indian allies with the powerful Chickasaw nation for control of the Mississippi and its eastern approaches.

This French campaign fought two pitched battles when they attacked the Chickasaw fortified villages at Ogoula Tchetoka and Ackia. The French were driven away with great losses.

The French were again defeated despite having numerous Indian allies from Louisanna to Illinois, and even sometimes Iroquois.

He was born in Ohio and became a Methodist minister. But then moved to Denver. He was an erstwhile politician in Colorado who used military campaigns for his personal aggrandizement. In 1862 he led Denver militia at the Battle of Glorietta Pass in which the Confederate offensive campaign toward Colorado was defeated. His part as in attacking and destroying the Confederate supply base behind the actual battle in the pass. In 1864 he against orders attacked the peaceful Cheyenne camp at Sand Creek. The event created a storm of denunciation including commissions and a court hearing in Denver and one at Ft. Riley. But Chivington escaped justice.

He was a thoroughly evil man who while seeking to enhance his political popularity in Denver conducted the surprise Sand Creek Massacre against an innocent Cheyenne camp killing mostly women and children. His later life, after the Civil War went from bad to worse but with him still maintaining that he was right at Sand Creek.

They also lived east of the Mississippi but mostly west and southwest of the Chickasaw. They fought on the French side and continued to fight the Chickasaw in later years.

There are many important French leaders listed under the name - Choiseul - and many places names after them. This gentleman was a military officer, diplomat and statesman. Between 1766 and 1770 he was the French Foreign Minister. He fought in many wars including the Austro-Turkish War and the War of the Austrian Succession. He was a major political supervisor of French military and diplomatic policy during the Seven Years' War.

Chouteau, August Pierre (1786 - 1838) He was born in St. Louis to Jean Pierre Chouteau and Pelagie Keirsereau. One of his brothers was Pierre Chouteau, Jr. The family were early founders of St. Louis and prominent in the fur trade on the Missouri River. He was appointed to the U.S. Military Academy by President Jefferson and graduated in the class of 1806. He resigned his commission to enter the fur business but was appointed Captain of militia in the War of 1812. In 1817 he was arrested by the Spanish for entering their territory and imprisoned for a while but then released. He was appointed Commissioner to the Comanche for 1837-38. He built trading posts in Oklahoma in 1832, then a dangerous region. He established homes in both St. Louis and in Oklahoma where he died at Ft. Gibson. He had many children by 5 or more wives.

He was born in St. Louis into a wealthy French fur trading family. For a time he was agent for the John J. Astor fur trading company, but did much on his own, including pioneering the use of steamboats on the Missouri River and building Fort Pierrein South Dakota and Fort Benton in Montana.

The church established in England after it was withdrawn from the Roman Catholic Church by King Henry VIII. It was also established in some of the colonies. It is also called the Anglican Church. The Episcopal Church in the United States is a descendant of the Church of England.

This religious group was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 in New York. He took his followers to Ohio and then Missouri and Illinois. They clashed with other locals. Then Brigham Young led the members on the famous trek to Utah in 1847 where they established themselves and have their headquarters to the present.

This route between Santa Fe and St. Louis was a short cut on the Santa Fe trading route using the Cimarron River, when travel through Comanchee territory became sufficiently safe.

He was an English pioneer, surveyor and politician in Virginia and Maryland. He asserted his right to Kent Island in Chesapeake Bay against the Maryland governors (Including Sir George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore. He and the 2nd Baron engaged in the first naval battle in American waters Claiborne and Ingel's Rebellion in 1644. Their struggles became involved with the struggles in England during the Civil War and Cromwell's reign, with alternating Parliamentary support. After he lost out in decisions over Maryland he retired to his Virginia plantation.

He was a farmer, lawyer, and politician. He was elected by New Jersey to the Continental Congress where he strongly supported Independence. During the war his two sons were officers and were captured and imprisoned by the British. The British offered to release them if he would recant the Declaration but he refused. He was sent by New Jersey to the Annapolis convention where he advocated the convening of the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. He served as a Representative in the U. S. Congress. He was a strong advocate for workers and farmers as the productive engine of society.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from New Jersey. He is listed here.

He was an explorer, surveyor, and soldier. He was made general and was the senior American officer in the Northwest territories during the American Revolution. His most famous exploits were in the the Illinois Campaign, with his capture of Kaskaskia Illinois in 1778 and Vincennes, Indiana in 1779.

He was a brother of George Rogers Clark. He was one of the two leaders of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, from St. Louis to the Pacific Ocean and back.

The detailed daily Journal of their two year expedition to the Pacific and back to St. Louis remains a priceless document describing the terrain, vegetation and life along the route.

He was acting governor of New York 1736 -1743. During his tenure the famous 'Negro Plot' (1740 -41) occurred. A large fire broke out in the city and without any evidence Negro slaves were blamed. A number were hanged, others burned at the stake, and many more transported to the West Indies.

He was one of the founders, along with William Coddington, of Newport in future Rhode Island in 1637

A band of Shoshoni Indians attacked a wagon train near the Snake River in Idaho. Thomas Clark was bringing prize cattle and horses along the Oregon Trail to open a ranch in Oregon. The Shoshoni were lacking enough horses and guns were looking for someone to attack when they found Clark's party. Thomas, his sister, and some others survived.

He was born in Virginia but moved to Kentucky where he had a distinguished political career in the U.S. Senate, House of Representatives and as Secretary of State for President John Q. Adams. He was repeatedly a candidate for President.

He accomplished the Missouri Compromise, the tariff compromise of 1833 and the Compromiseof 1850

This treaty between the United States and Great Britain was to settle issues involving British holdings in Honduras (Belize) and Nicaragua coast at a time when there was discussion about building a canal across Nicaragua.

He was a New York state politician, Mayor of N.Y. City, and state Governor who was responsible for building of the Erie Canal and candidate for President in 1812

He was a nephew of Vice President George Clinton

He joined the Royal navy in 1703 during the War of the Spanish Succession. He was the governor of Newfoundland and then Commander of the Royal fleet in the Mediterranean. He was Governor of New York 1743 - 1753 during which service he had to cope with attacks of the French fleet during King George's War. He was promoted full admiral in 1747. He was continually opposed by the liberal colonial legislature led by James DeLacy who wanted to continue profitable trade with the French. So he appointed Colden to be his advisor and appointed Sir William Johnsonto obtain the Mohawk Indians to be allies against the French.

The Wikipedia entry includes the names and dates of each ship he commanded as he rose through the ranks. He was the father of Sir Henry Clinton who commanded British forces during the Revolutionary War.
But among his cousins were the Clintons who were politicians and generals on the American side.

He was a New York state politician and soldier. During the Revolutionary war he built the chain across the Hudson at West Point. He was N.Y. governor 1777-1795 and 1801-1804.

He was the 4th Vice President of the U.S. (1805 - 1812) and besides Calhoun the only one to serve as VP for two presidents.

He was a British general and Commander in Chief of British forces in America during the Revolution.

He was the son of Admiral George Clinton.

He was a Pennsylvania politician and very early advocate for independence. He led demonstrations after the Tea and Stamp Acts. He was elected to the Continental Congress in 1776. He remained active in politics for the rest of his life.

He is considered to be one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He signed the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution as delegate from Pennsylvania. His bio is here. and here.

He was a British lawyer, politician, political theorist. He opposed mercantilism and advocated free trade.

He organized and led the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838. The British Corn Law (1815 - 1846) was a tariff and import restriction that favored the agricultural interests of the landed gentry in power by restricting imports and raising the price of grain.

A free-trade treaty between Great Britian and France to reduce tariffs and promote commerce. It produced greatly expanded trade but was ended by the French when their businesses demanded that tariffs be established.

He was the leader of the Chiricahua Apache in Arizona in the Apache Wars from 1861 to 1874. The Battle of Apache Pass took place in 1861 when an American army force was moving east to intercept the Confederate invasion of New Mexico. They were blocked in the pass by Cochise's Apache.

There is a bust of Cochise at the Fort Bowie museum.

William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody was born in Iowa but later settled in Kansas. He became a pony express rider at 14 and served in the Union army during the Civil War. Then he served as a scout for the Army on the plains and received the Medal of Honor in 1872. By age 23 he was already a living legend of the 'wild west'. He made a career out of this, in addition to his real exploits and buffalo hunter. He financed Buffalo Bill's Wild West in 1883 and toured with his company in Europe as well as the United States.

He was a Puritan leader who moved to create a new colony in Rhode Island called Newport in 1637

He was born in Ireland of Scottish parents. He studies medicine and various sciences in London. In 1710 he was invited to move to Philidelphia and in 1717 Robert Hunter invited him to move to New York, where he continued to practice medicine while also entering political life. He was acting governor 1760 -1762 - again 63-65 - again 69-70 - and 74-75. He met with the Iroquois and wrote the book about them. He was a strong loyalist and at one time was met by a mob protesting his support for the Stamp Act.

As a scientist he published study of public health and botany and as a surveyor he corresponded with Benjamin Franklin and published his views correcting Issac Newton.

The war was over title to the Maxwell Land grant (the original Beaubien-Miranda grant) between original settlers and a big company that bought the right without real title.

Another interesting reference site.

In 1673 during theThird Anglo - Dutch Warthe Dutch were able to evade the English fleet and enter New York harbor under command of Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Captain Anthony Colve. Admiral Evertsen returned to Holland where he was censured for disobeying orders to take Cayenne and Saint Helena rather than New York. No doubt the Dutch leaders knew they could not hold New York.

He was left to govern the captured territories in 1673-74, but not for long. They were returned to the English by the Treaty of Westminster.

Acts passed by the British Parliament to punish Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea party and general rebellion. They were called by colonists - Intolerable Acts. The four acts were: the Boston Port Act; The Massachusetts Government Act; The Administration of Justice Act: and the Quartering Act. Provisions in these became some of the specific denunciations in the Declaration of Independence.

There was also the QuebecAct, which while not actually a part of the other 4, was considered by the colonists as bad or worse due to its provisions - prevention of settlers from crossing the mountains and displacing Indians - and extension of French Catholic rights throughout the territory between Quebec and New Orleans. The act was a direct result of the problems that caused Pontiac's War.

One of the first Acts of the new Congress. It established the silver dollar as the currency of the United States and, following Jefferson's recommendation a decimal coinage system.

He was an English lawyer, judge - Chief Justice and influential for centuries by his book - Institutes - especially with respect to the 3rd and 4th Amendments to the Constitution.

He was trained as a physician and became a long time politician in New York province. He was alternately Lt. Governor and Governor between periods of other governors. He was a strong royalist and sought to get General Gage to enforce the Stamp Act.

He was born in Connecticut and at age 11 indentured to a farmer. He was self educated largely by reading science books. In 1829 he entered his father's business. From the beginning he had a dream of making guns. Using the factory tools and engineering books he began inventing things. Then he went to sea and sailed as far as Calcutta. He later stated that watching how the ship's steering wheel operated gave him the idea for a revolver. In 1832 he returned to work with his father, who financed his further experiments and inventions. To obtain more finances he went on the road demonstrating the effects of nitrous oxide. Later, he went to England and obtained a patent for his revolving gun, then returned to the U.S. and received a patent here.

He was the Dutch Governor of New York (1673 - 1674) who captured the place (New Netherlands) from the English and held it for a year.

After obtaining horses from the Spanish they became the premier cavalry of the plains. Their domain included eastern New Mexico, southern Colorado and Kansas, western Oklahoma and much of western Texas into Mexico. They fought not only the white settlers and ranchers but especially the Cheyenne and Arapaho.. Their population increased greatly as they considered themselves lords of the plains. They took thousands of prisoners and incorporated the women into their bands. They had an unlimited access to over 2 million wild horses roaming in their domain. They lived as many separate bands, recognizing each other but not forming a real 'nation.'

See also Comanche Wars. This entry describes in detail the near continuous warfare from 1709 to 1877. It includes leaders and events, battles and raids.

This developed out of the correspondence initiated by pro-revolutionary factions in the various colonies seeking to advise each other and spread the news. By working together the individual committees became the early de facto government making policy prior to the First ContinentalConvention. The committees had about 7,000 to 8,000 total membership.

The Wikipedia entry describes the procedural differences between when a legislature meets as a 'committee of the whole' and when it is in session as a legislature conducing that kind of business.

Common law gradually develops out of judicial decisions in court cases. The Wikipedia entry, here, has an extensive discussion

This pamphlet written by Thomas Paine became a major influence on public opinion in the colonies. It was incendiary in tone and urged immediate rebellion.

A term devised to distinguish arrangements in which small groups of people live together, usually owning their property in common, from 20th century communism, where the power of government is used to impose communal arrangement on whole populations

This is a term for a set of legislative five bills in Congress that were designed for (hoped for) reducing political tension between the pro-slavery southern and anti-slavery northern states. But among the provisions was the Fugitive Slave law which demanded that escaped slaves found in northern states be returned to their 'owners'.

The 'compromise' was considered a major accomplishment of Senators Henry Clay and Stephen Douglas, but it did not last.

From the very beginning of the United States, tariffs were a major political conflict. The first act of the new Congress was the passing of a tariff to raise income for the government. (Tariffof 1789), but there was also a protectionist' aspect to the specifics of each tariff - namely to protect and promote special economic interests. This tariff was developed by Henry Clay and John Calhoun as a compromise for southern agricultural interests.

The much detested 'Tariff of Abominations' in 1828 was so advantageous to New England and northern merchants and manufacturers at the expense of southern cotton and other agricultural interests that South Carolina threatened to succeed - and to prevent its enforcement in the state. Andrew Jackson put a stop to such ideas.

He discovred the greatest deposit of silver ore in the United States which led to the usual rush and then creation of Virginia City, Nevada. But he had sold out early and did not reap the real fortunes.

The discovery is known as 'the Comstock Lode'.

A heavy duty wagon first mentioned in writing in 1717. It was not a standard 'covered wagon' and was too heavy for much use on the western plains. It could carry 5 tons. It was named for the Conestoga River in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania. It was used as far west as Ohio, and frequently between north and south through the mountains from Canada to the Carolinas. It was built specially for fording rivers and being water tight. It was drawn by large teams of horses of oxen. It required a special breed of heavy duty horses.

This is an alliance or league of otherwise independent states, nations, or countries, but more closely bound, The United States was a confederation constitutionally from 1781 to 1789. Confederations are usually formed for particular purposes, such as war or defense, and each of he states retains its independence of action otherwise.

Used to describe the Confederate States of America, an organization composed of the 11 Southern states which seceded from the union. While the Confederate Constitution was modeled after the United States Constitution, its makers insisted theirs was a confederation restrained by the basic independence of the states, not a consolidated system, such as they believed the United States was becoming.

The Confederate States of America were the 11 states in the south that declared independence from the Union and established their capital in Richmond, Virginia.

He was a French naval commander. He saw extensive service during the War of the Austrian Succession in the Mediterranean and Atlantic. In the Seven Years' War he was ordered to provide naval escort for a French army invasion of Great Britain. During the ensuing battle with British Admiral Hawke a huge storm forced both fleets into Quiberon Bay where the French were destroyed or run aground. This was the decisive battle which prevented the French from supply and defense of their colonies, most importantly Canada.

A Reformed Protestant church denomination in which each congregation is independent and forms its own organizational structure. They were frequently called 'Separatists' and formed congregations in Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony. In the United States they became supporters of social change including abolition. and woman's suffrage.

The Wikipedia article and many others provide a detailed description of the history and leaders of the various types of Congregational churches from their early antecedents to today.

This was a crucial development in the creation of the U.S. Constitution. The issue was how the states would be represented in the national legislature. The smaller states, such as Delaware, were concerned they would be overwhelmed by the large states such as New York and Virginia. Edmund Randolph presented the Virginia Plan for a bicameral legislature. And William Paterson presented an alternative New Jersey Plan. It was Roger Shermanof Connecticut who presented the plan upon which delegates finally agreed.

The drafting of men into the armed forces - compulsory military service. Both the Union and the Confederacy conscripted men to be soldiers during the latter part of the Civil War, but it was possible to hire a substitute rather than go in person.

The meeting in Philadelphia of delegates from the 13 colonies which drafted the new Constitution of the United States. It was organized to amend the Articles of Confederation, but went far beyond its original purpose. There were many arguments over details of government organization but compromises were developed.

This was a urgent political organization of Whigs, some Democrats and others who sought to preserve the Union at all costs by proposing 6 Constitutional Amendments

The party nominated John Bell for President and Edward Everett for Vice President. They obtained some votes.

At the outset of the Revolution the available military forces were the militias of the various states. The Second Continental Congress, with Washington's recommendation, realized the need for a more formal and unified army.

This was the de facto government of the American Revolutionaries during the War in its first two sittings - 1774 and 1775-81. And then it was the Third Continental Congress 1781 -1789 under the Articles of Confederation. It was supplanted by the U. S. Congress under the Constitution.

This concept in study of history points to the some times dramatic effect of an unexpected and entirely random event on the course of events and outcomes or results. For instance the death of a prominent leader in the middle of some crucial events may totally change the outcome.

He was a French Canadian, lard land owner and officer in the colonial regular army. He was commander at Fort Dusquense when it was threatened by General Braddock.

This was not a meeting but a diplomatic agreement - to cancel a previous agreement. It ended the Treaty of Alliance of 1778 between France and the Continental Congress. This was the only treaty of alliance the United States signed from then until the United Nations alliance.

The United States and France were engaged in the Quasi-War- a naval war in the Caribbean resulting from the Napoleonic Wars and the XYZ Affair.

He served in the War of the Austrian Succession. He was a cousin of Horace Walpole. INN Parliament and the cabinet he was at times Secretary of State for the Southern Department, Secretary of state for the Northern Department, Secretary for Ireland, leader in the House of Commons, and eventually Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. In Parliament and cabinet he played an important role in the British policy in the French and Indian War and toward the colonies after that.

He was born in Cornwall, attended Oxford, became an Anglican minister in 1688, and sailed to Maryland in 1672, He renounced his ministry and married a wealthy heiress. He became active in colonial politics and especially opposed the Cartert family ( Barons). In 1681 he participated in Fendal's rebellion but was released. In 1689 he organized another rebellion. Coode's Rebellion. This time he was successful in capturing St. Mary and declared himself governor. But he was soon replaced by a royal governor. He attempted rebellion again in 1699 and was defeated, after which he retired.

He was born in Leesburg, Virginia and graduated West Point in 1827. He is noted as the author of a manual on cavalry and is claimed as 'father of US cavalry. His son John Rogers Cooke and his son in law J.E.B. Stuart went with the Confederacy but Philip Cooke remained a Union officer. During his long service prior to the war he fought and conducted many campaigns against the Indians and during the Mexican War he led an expedition to California. During the Civil War he commanded large cavalry units in the field through the Peninsula Campaign and then served in staff positions. After the war he commanded several of the different Western departments.

He met Charles and William Bent and Ceran St. Vrain repeatedly as a new Lt. commanding dragoon units in the 1830-40's to protect merchant convoys through hostile Indian territory. His experience with them influenced his post- Civil War career as a leader in the Indian Wars, as did his service with Colonel Henry Dodge..

He was born in New Jersey and then lived in New York State and became an author whose novels were based on colonial history. Before that he was a midshipman in the US Navy and his first novel _ the Spy_ was based on real life during the Revolution. His most famous novels include The Leatherstocking Tales and The Last of the Mohicans. But he wrote many more including several about naval affairs including a History of the US Navy and a set of biographies of naval commanders.

He was a U.S. Representative from Delaware.

He was the Governor of New York from 1698 to 1700/1 - He died in office.

He was the first Royal Governor of Maryland - 1692-93 when he died in office. In the Glorious Revolution the Protestants deposed the Catholic Calvert family from proprietary control. The local Protestant leaders in the Assembly had gained much power during the previous period of chaos and resisted giving it up to executive authority. So Governor Copley faced much political struggle during his short tenure. He was succeeded as govenor by Francis Nicholson.

The term given to the northern Democrats who opposed the Civil War and advocated letting the southern states retain slavery. They opposed Lincoln in the election of 1864.

He was a Presbyterian Minister, abolitionist, and Free black living in New York. He published the first black newspaper

The Marquis Cornwallis was a long serving professional British soldier and governor. He is most famous in America for having been trapped and forced to surrender at Yorktown, VA in 1781.

General Cornwallis commanded British forces in the southern colonies. he won battles at GuilfordCourt House, and at Camden. After the war he served as governor in India and of Ireland.

The Wikipedia entry notes that this term has been applied to three American political events - elections - In 1824 the manipulation by Henry Clay in the House that gave the Presidency to John Q. Adams - in 1876 the manipulation that bought southern votes for - and in 1974 Gerald Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon

He was Governor of New York 1732 - 36. He was an Irish brigadier general who soon became in conflict with Rip Van Dam over pay for the latter. They battled in the competing public newspapers. In his New York Weekly Journal John Peter Zenger attacked Cosby who arrested him and charged him with libel. Zenger's defense advocate was Andrew Hamilton. The jury voted 'not guilty'

This is the famous trial that claimed freedom of the press.

Much of the American cotton crop was full of nettles which required hours of hand work in eliminating before the cotton could be used. Eli Whitney invested a simple machine that could remove the nettles rapidly and easily. This enabled a great expansion in the planting and production of cotton. In turn, this required a larger force of slaves, thus expanding and prolonging slavery in the southern states..

Ironically, Whitney's machine was so simple and easily made in small shops that it was rapidly produced, despite his efforts to secure a patent. He received very little profit from this economic revolution.

They were escaped slaves (in 1848) who generated anti-slavery opinion by their personal story and publications.

He was a politician. he was Sec of war 1815-16, Sec of Treasury 1816 - 1825. He ran for President in the election of 1824 and finished 3rd. This resulted in there being no candidate with a majority in the Electoral College, which moved the election to the House of Representatives giving Henry Clay the opportunity to make John Q. Adams president.

This was a rebellion in Scotland over economic issues - wages and working conditions. William Crawford (Scot) was among the leaders.

He was a leader of the Oglala Lakota in mid-19th century during the American IndianWars. He participated in several of the major battles including the Battle of the LittleBig Horn and the Fetterman massacre. He was murdered immediately after he surrendered.

He was the author of a very famous and popular "Letter from and American Farmer", that provided insight to Europeans about American society

The Muscogee- lived in the southeastern woods - Tennessee, Alabama, western Georgia. They were considered one of the Five Civilized Tribes due to their living in well established villiages and farming.

The nation was frequently split politically into northern and southers branches in which the southern allied with the colonists. The Northerners supported the Shawnee chief Temcuseh. They fought the Red Stick War(Creek War of 1813-14). Some were driven into Florida where they were named Seminole

This was an internal war between rival factions and groups of different Creek Indians during the War of 1812, but various colonial militia units took part as well. The war ended with the Treaty of Fort Jackson in which General Andrew Jackson forced the Creek nations to give up a huge territory in Alabama and Georgia.

The Wikipedia entry has extensive illustrated discussion of the entire affair.

This is also known as the second Creek War. It was the struggle between the Creek people who were being forced to move to Oklahoma and the white settlers and land speculators who were appropriating their land. General Winfield Scott was sent to force the Creeks out.

He was a politician in Kentucky - Representative, Senator and state governor. He is well known as the author of the attempt at compromise on the slavery question.

This was the effort offered to pass 6 Amendments to the Constitution to avert the Civil War.

The effort failed.

He became a legend in his own time. He was a frontiersman, then a politician and Representative in Congress from Tennessee. There he was famous for voting against federal payments and subsidies as being 'unconstitutional'.

He explored the Virginia frontier and found the Cumberland Gap through which he opened the way into Tennessee. He later moved to Texas and died in the Battle of the Alamo.

He was born in Ireland, moved to Pennsylvania in 1741 and became a fur trader in Ohio territory. He was appointed to the Iroquois council in 1746. He manipulated his appointments to treat with the Indians to serve his own purposes. He was forced to leave the frontier in 1877.

He was born in Ohio and graduated the U.S. Military Academy in 1852. He served in California and Oregon fighting Indians and was wounded. With the Civil War he was ordered east and made a colonel commanding an Ohio militia regiment. He fought in the Second Battle of Bull Run and at Antietam. Then he was ordered west and participated on battles including Chicamauga. He then commanded troops in West Virginia and the Shenandoah Valley. After the war he returned to command in the Pacific area _ Oregon. Then he was moved to New Mexico and Arizona to fight Apaches. Then he commanded the Army operations against the Sioux and Cheyenne. The northern Indians now on reservations, Crook returned to Arizona where he again pursued Apache including Geronimo.

He is generally considered one of, if not the best, of the U.S. Army commanders against the Indians.
There are many places named for him.

They lived around the Yellowstone River from Wyoming into Montana and North Dakota. They were pushed west by the Cheyenne and the Lakota. During the expansion of settlers and US army the Crow remained enemies of the Cheyenne and Lakota so served some times as US cavalry scouts.

Straegic point in New York on the axis from Canada through the lakes and Hudson River to New York City.

He was the third and youngest son of King George II. He defeated the Jacobites at the Battle of Culloden in 1746, but otherwise had a unsuccessful military career although he fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Year's War.

These were two acts of Parliament designed to protect British merchants and creditors from loss due to the depreciation of paper money exchanged by the American colonists for their imports.

The American colonists were generally in need of more currency to conduct commerce. They used three forms of money of exchange, commodity money (staples such as tobacco and beaver pelts); specie (gold and silver coin); wampum and paper money (fiat) issued by the colonial governments. Since specie drained out to England there was always a shortage, causing the governments to print more and more paper money. For coins they used Spanish and Portuguese dollars. The denominations were pounds, shillings and pence. But the nominal value of colonial pounds was different from British pounds and even different in different colonies. Of course the paper money depreciated - list value- in comparison with British coins and merchants there were being paid for their exports in reduce value currency. The Parliament passed several Currency laws - in 1751 - 1764 and 1773 either to restrict the quantity of paper being printed or to declare whether or not it could be called 'legal tender' .

Massachusetts was the first colony (not only a colony, but the first in the entire Western world) to print paper money, in 1690, to finance debt from King William's War. But by 1715 all 13 colonies had printed paper money. These took the form generally of 'bills of credit' or bank notes based on land (Pennsylvania) and were not exchangeable. All this was long before the huge printing and devaluing of paper during the American Revolution.

He was a politician from South Carolina who became the only Whig to be the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. He defended Andrew Johnson in the president's impeachment trial.

She was an American girl who was kidnapped in 1836 by a Comanche war band who killed her family. She was born in Illinois. With her grand father, John Parker, as leader the family was recruited to build a fortified village in northern Texas. In 1836 the family was attacked and massacred by Comanche warriors and 5 girls were taken prisoner. Four of them were eventually ransomed, but Cynthia was eventually married to Comanche chief, Peta Nocona by whom she had 3 children. The last of them was Quanah Parker, war leader of the remaining tribe in the Red River War.

In the typical example of the white American attitude toward the Indians, Cynthia was 'rescued' from her family against her will in 1860. The American public was overjoyed and she became something of a public icon. She could not understand and after her daughter died (1864 or 1870) refused to eat until she died. Her son, Quanah, died in 1911 and they were reburied together at Fort Sill.

He was born in Virginia and became a merchant seaman by 1776. He then entered the American Navy and was captured by the British. Then he served in the British navy for a brief time before returning to the U.S. He alternately served in the American navy and was captured twice more. He escaped to France where he signed on with John Paul Jones. Amazingly he was again captured and taken to New York. After the war he became a business man with maritime trade. In 1794 he was selected to be one of the first 6 commodores in the new U.S. Navy. He led the American navy into the Mediterranean for the First Barbary War. After that he resigned and again became a prosperous business man.

He was a British army and naval officer who was governor of Virginia from 1611 - to 1616. He was sent in 1611 by the Virginia Companyof London as deputy governor to improve conditions. He ruled tyrannically in order to bring the unruly colonists into order. His major economic reform was to abandon the communal organization of farming and establish individual private enterprise land holding. He established a new settlement named Henricus but it was destroyed in the Indian massacre. He attempted to curtail the growth of tobacco, but after he was replaced it became the major source of export profits.

From 1588 to 1609 he served with the English army in the Netherlands. he was knighted by King James I in 1606. In 1616 he sailed back to England along with ThomasRolfe and his wife, Rebecca (Pocahontas) and their son. In 1618 he was appointed to command a squadron of 6 ships to sail to the East Indies and confront the Dutch. He defeated the Dutch in battle of Jacatra and captured the city. He died the following year in India.

He was Secretary of the Treasury.

He was a senator from Pennsylvania and VP for President Polk.

As a young man he went to sea as a sailor on a merchant ship to California from where hides were shipped back to New England. He wrote the very popular and famous book ' TwoYears before the Mast' was a very detailed personal memoir that became a major influence with the public. After that he obtained a law degree from Harvard in 1837. He was a prominent abolitionist and member of the Free Soil party. He did influence on the development of maritime law.

Ananias and Ellinor were the parents of VirginiaDare who was the first English person born in America. They were members of the Roanoke Colony. John White returned to England to find more colonists and supply and when he returned no one could be found

The fate of the 'lost colony' has continued to generate speculation from 1600 to the present. A popular tourist attraction on Roanoke Island in the North Carolina Outer Banks continues to draw visitors

The term was first used in horse racing in the 1830's to indicate a horse that was not favored to win but did. In politics, the nomination of a candidate who was not expected to be chosen. It was first applied to candidate James K. Polk who one the nomination on the 9th ballot. Democrats were most likely to nominate a 'dark horse' or compromise presidential candidate because they required more than a simple majority of the delegate votes to achieve nomination, and where there was heated contest among contenders none could get the necessary votes. Thus, they turned to a 'dark horse' where none of the contenders could be chosen.

The term has been applied to among others, Franklin Pierce, Rutherford Hayes, Jimmy Carter, Donald Trump, Abraham Lincoln, James Garfield and Warren Harding.

He was President of the Confederate States - 1861 - 65. He was the 23rd Secretary of War, under President Pierce. Some historian critics fault him with trying to micro-manage military affairs in the Civil War

He graduated from the U.S. Military Academy and served in the Mexican War.

He was born in Alabama and represented the state in the Confederate Congress.

He was an American patriot in Boston who along with Paul Revere rode to alert the men guarding weapons and ammunition at Lexington and Concord.

He was 15 at the start of the Revolutionary War and served under his father in the 3rd New Jersey Regiment. He fought at Brandywine, Germantownand Yorktown. After the war he became a lawyer and surveyor. He served in both the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention. He was a Federalist Party member as Congressional Representative and supported Hamilton and strong fiscal, monetary, policies. He was Speaker of the House in the 4th and 5th Congresses. He lent money to Arron Burr, which effectively ended his political career.

He was the youngest person to sign the U.S. Constitution, as a delegate from New Jersey. He became wealthy from land investments in Ohio where, now, the city of Dayton is named after him. He hosted Lafayette during the latter's American tour, which according to his obituary resulted in his death from the festivities.

He was a colonial merchant who became a diplomat for the Continental Congress in 1776 as envoy to France. He signed the Declaration of Independence.

He was accused of financial mistakes and had a long time proving his innocence.

James Dunwoody Brownson De Bow was an influential publisher who lived in New Orleans. In his magazine De Bow's Review, he advocated expansion of southern agriculture.

He was concerned about the Mexican secession in 1848 and the political shift to guarantee Southern Rights that led to the Compromise of 1850. In 1860's he urged secession.

He was an American Naval commander who became a hero during his fighting in many wars.- including the Barbarywars - the Quasi-War and War of 1812

His father, Stephen Decatur Sr. was also a naval commodore

This document was enacted by the Second ContinentalCongress in Philidelphia by the 13 American Colonies, already at war with Great Britian, who announced they considered themselves independent states. The draft was prepared by a committee of three, with Thomas Jefferson writing the draft, which was amended slightly by the Congress.

The text was then printed in multiple copies and sent throughout the colonies. The original is preserved in the National Archives. A copy is available via Wikipedia link and from many other Internet sources. A list of the signers is at

This was the Act of Parliament in which they repealed the Stamp act but still forcefully claimed the legal right to levy taxes on the colonies.

This philosophy became popular amongst the intelligentsia during the late 18th century - the self-called "Age of Enlightenment" . The adherents retained a belief in a single God but denied that He interfered in human affairs. They believed that pure reason, rather than revelation, was sufficient to establish this. They also rejected established religion and sacraments.

He was born in New York. He was educated in England - at Cambridge and admitted to the New York bar in 1725. In 1729 he became a member of the Assembly and in 1731 a justice of the Supreme Court. In 1735 he presided at the trial of Peter Zenger. In 1754 he presided at the Albany Conference called in an effort to unite the colonies in defence against the French and Indians in the war. He was the Lt. Governor who then was acting Governor on the death of Danvers Osborn. -1755 In July he attended the conference of governors in Virginia that helped prepare General Braddock's fated expedition.

He was again acting governor 1758 - 1760, because Sir Charles Hardy was commanding the expedition against Louisbourg and then with Wolfe on the St. Lawrence River. He died in office.

The Dutch first established a colony in Delaware near what is now Lewes, but the colonists were all killed by the Indians. The colony and state is named for the Delaware River which was named for the colonial governor of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron
De La Warr. In 1638 The Swedes founded New Sweden at Fort Christiana where Wilmington is now. In 1651 the Dutch returned to establish a new colony and in 1655 they conquered the Swedes and united the area to New Netherland. In 1664 the Dutch were conquered by an English fleet sent by the Duke of York, who they had also to fight off claims from Cecil Calvert of Maryland to give the area to William Penn in 1682. Penn wanted this area to gain access to the sea for his colony in Pennsylvania. When the Lower Colony - Delaware and Pennsylvania area began to separate in 1704 they still had the same governor. The Delaware region soon grew tobacco using slave labor. When the Revolution began the residents in Delaware were mostly loyal to England. But leaders such as John Dickenson convinced the colonial assembly to declare independence not only from Britain but also from Pennsylvania. For the war Delaware raised one of the best and largest regiments for the Continental Army.

For the critical roles of individual leaders in bringing the Delaware region into the United States see the biographies of Thomas Mckean, John Dickinson, George Read, Caesar Rodney and John Haslet.

A colonial name for the Lenape people who lived along the eastern seaboard - along the Hudson River, New Jersey, Long Island. The colonists prevented them from obtaining fire arms, while the Iroquois did have them. In the Beaver Wars the Lenape were subjugated by the Iroquois, plus they lost population heavily due to European diseases.

They gradually moved west through Pennsylvania to the Ohio River area during which time they raided colonial settlements. Eventually, in the 1860's they were moved to Indian country - Oklahoma.

A political party formed and led by Andrew Jackson and his followers. It claimed to be a continuation of the Jeffersonian Republican Party. The party usually stood for states' rights, private enterprise, strict construction of the constitution, free trade and opposed Federal aid for internal improvements and national banks.

This act of Congress was to redistribute the Federal Government Treasury funds (30 - 35 million dollars) to selected state banks according to a formula. At the time the Federal government income was mostly from tariff and sale of western lands. It was politically controversial due to the conflicting desires of special interests. The Specie Circular required that the US Treasury would only accept gold and silver coin in payment for public lands - previously it had accepted paper money - bank notes. The result was devaluation of the paper money and increased inflation. A political battle ensued.

The surplus was eliminated the next year during the Panic of 1837.

He was born in Maryland and educated in London but lived mostly in Pennsylvania and Delaware. He participated in many revolutionary events such as the Stamp Act Congress to the Constitutional Convention. He was a leading 'theoretician' of the Revolution. He is called 'the penman of the Revolution'. He wrote letters published in newspapers denouncing the Townshend duties which were then published as a pamphlet. He wrote the "Declaration of Rights" and the "Olive Branch Petition" and the Articles of Confederation. He influenced Delaware to be the first state to ratify the Constitution.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Delaware. His main point was that the colonies were not represented in Parliament, that taxes take property, and that the more Parliament intruded in this way the less secure was property in America. The result was widespread resistance with colonial legislatures passing letters. He also wrote "Lettersfrom a farmer in Pennsylvania. Which was extremely influential in Europe. He is listed with the signers of the Constitution.

He was a German who fought as a French General in America during the French and Indian War. He was sent as commander of all French military in Canada in 1755. He launched a campaign south and was wounded at the subsequent Battle of Lake George. He was taken prisoner and then evacuated to France. He was replaced by Louis-Joseph de Montcalm.

He was born in Ireland. From 1751 - to 1758 he was the Lt. Governor of Virginia colony and actually in command because the titular governors were in England. He was greatly concerned about French expansion in the Ohio River valley. He sent George Washington to negotiate and the French refused to depart and instead built their Fort Duquesne. Then he sent Washington again with militia to build a road to the Ohio River. In this expedition Washington's Indian ally killed the French commander - Jumonville - which historians cite as the opening of the French and Indian War. The British government then sent General Braddock - who was killed while attempting the same thing. Dinwiddie returned to England in 1758

The area established for the National Capital. It was created by the ResidenceAct. Provision for such a capital in included in the Constitution. The political issue was where to create it. As a result of Compromise of 1790 it was decided to place it along the Potomac River and the states of Maryland and Virginia ceded land for that purpose. President Washington was empowered to select the specific location. Initially it was a quare with 10 miles on each side. The established towns of Georgetown, Maryland and Alexandria, Virginia were within the chosen area.

During 1791-92 a team of surveyors led by Andrew Ellicott laid out the corner stones and established the boundaries. On July 9th, 1846 Congress returned to Virginia its portion of the District. Alexandria, being a major slave trading location was afraid slavery would be abolished in the District.

He was a politician in New York State, governor - Secretary of the US Treasury, senior Major General of Militia in the Civil War.

He commanded Union troops in Delaware and prevented state politicians from attempting succession.

This was a political and religious doctrine to establish the legitimacy for the rule of kings. It means that a kings' right to rule comes only from God and no human authority is justified in questioning it. In ancient civilizations the ruler was frequently considered to be either the representative of the gods on earth or to have divine origins himself. The Christian doctrine was seen to stem from Chapter 1 Samuel in the Old Testament in which Samuel anointed Saul as king.

He rose in prominence when he commanded mounted troops in the Black Hawk War. He was second in command to Colonel Henry Leavenworth on the first official U.S. Army expedition into the southwest plains. It departed Fort Gibson in 1834 with John Ganttand some Indians along as guides and interpreters. The weather and terrain was terrible, 150 of the 500 men in the expedition died, including Colonel Leavenworth. The command continued, being lead by Colonel Henry Dodge. They campaigned to Bent's Fort where they conducted a meeting with the Araphoe and other tribes. They did succeed in establishing friendly relations with several local tribes. Later, he became a politician in Wisconsin.

Several counties in Iowa and Wisconsin are named for him along with the town, Fort Dodge, Iowa.

He was an Irish supporter of King William III and Mary. He was appointed Governor of New York (1683 - 1688)

He did much to obtain the alliance with the Iroquois against the French in Canada

He was a diplomat and Vice Presidential candidate of the Know-Nothing Party in the election of 1856.

He was sent to Texas in 1838 and was an important individual in the annexation of Texas.

He was from Missouri. He commanded a unit during the Mexican War which campaigned in New Mexico against the Navajo uprising and then into Mexico .

He was a politician in Rhode Island who fought to expand the franchise and political power of the middle class and rural population against the big city machines. He led the unsuccessful rebellion.

A political effort (including actual rebellion and seizure of government) that had the objective of increasing the political power of the rural and agricultural population. It was unsuccessful.

He was a Scottish noble.

Frederick, Augustus Washington Bailey (Stephen) is considered the most influential African-American of the 19th century. He was an orator, stateman, author, reformer.

He was the VP candidate with Victoria Woodhull as President on the Equal RightsParty ticket.

He as a Democrat paty politician from Illinois. He was in the Lincoln-Douglas Debates in 1858. He championed the doctrine of 'popular sovereignty' and economic expansion. He favored railroad expansion and created the land grant system to finance railroads. He was responsible for the Compromiseof 1850. He also pushed the Kansas - Nebraska Act of 1854. This caused a major political upheaval and realignment of the parties, creating the Republican out of northern Whigs and Free Soilers.

He was a Representative (1843), Senator (1846), and Democratic candidate for President in 1856 and again in 1860, loosing to Abraham Lincoln. Douglas' efforts to preserve his own political career in the face of growing political conflict over slavery cost him support in both the North and South.

He was an English sea captain, sometime pirate, naval commander, achieved the second circumnavigation of the World (1677 - 1580) and the first to accomplish the entire feat in command himself. He was knighted by Queen Elizabeth I. He visited Roanoke in 1585. He was second in command of the English fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588.

This was probably the most notorious decision in Supreme Court History. Dred Scott was a slave transported by his master into a 'free state' who then claimed his freedom. But the court ruled otherwise.

He was an active 'mountain man' furtrapper in the Rocky Mtns.

John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore was a Scottish Peer who was appointed Governor of New York in 1770 and then moved to be Governor of Virginia in 1771. He conducted Lord Dunmore's War against the Indians west of the Appalachians as the Virginia colonists wanted to occupy the area. In 1776 he fled to New York when the colonists were starting the Revolutionary War.

He was Sec. of Treasury, briefly, who refused President Andrew Jackson's order to remove Treasury deposits from the Second Bank of the United States during the Bank War. He was promptly fired.

He was an American painter of the Hudson River School. He is most famous for his detailed landscapes, which are exhibited in many galleries

The Wikipedia entry includes lovely copies of many of his paintings.

He was a Congregational Minister and President of Yale.

He was a French general and Admiral. He fought in the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War and the American Revolution during which he brought a French fleet for the sieges of Savannah and Neuport. He was executed on the guillotine during the French Revolution.

He was a journalist and lawyer in Pennsylvania and V.P. candidate in 1840 for the Liberty Party with James G. _Birney.

He was born in Illinois. The family moved to Iowa and then during the Civil War, in 1864, the family moved to San Bernadino, California. Wyatt began work as a teamster hauling freight for the railroad as far east at Wyoming. In 1868 the family moved back to Missouri where Wyatt began his career as a lawman. From then on he was variously a sheriff and marshal in the frontier towns. He was famous in Wichita Kansas and Dodge City. After many adventures he moved to Tombstone, Arizona in 1879. There the famous Gun fight between the Earp brothers and Doc Holiday against the 'Cowboys' took place. After that he left, riding to New Mexico and then Colorado where he dealt faro in a saloon owned by Bat Masterson.

He became one of the living legends of the old west - more in the stories than reality. He is featured in many books and movie.

This was one of the important treaties concluded between the British colonial government and local Indian tribes. It was between the British governors of Pennsylvania and New Jersey and representatives of 13 Indian tribes lead by the Iroquois, Shawnee and Lenape. It was held at Easton, Pennsylvania. It assured to the Indians their preservation of their hunting grounds in Pennsylvania and Ohio. But of course it was soon violated by the colonists. But the Lenape had to relinquish their lands in New Jersey for the sum of $1,000 Spanish dollars. Also, the Indians agreed not to fight on the French side in the current war.

He was a politician, diplomat, Senator at age 28, Sec. of War for Andrew Jackson, commander of troops at Battle of New Orleans in War of 1812.

He was also at the center of the political scandal known as the Petticoat Affair that forced Jackson to have him resign as Sec. of War, but he later was Minister to Spain. The 'affair' was over his marriage to Margaret O'Neale Timberlake, who was denounced by Washington society for having been a bar maid (and possibly more) in her father's tavern.

He was born in Connecticut and joined the Continental Army in 1780 advancing to the rank of sergeant at age 19 in 1783. In 1790 he graduated from Dartmouth College. In 1797 he was appointed as U.S. Minister in Tunis, where his job was to represent the US and free captured Americans. During this period the US continued to pay bribes and ransom to Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis. Eaton became in favor of a military solution and so, eventually, did President Jefferson. Eaton went to Alexandria and obtained the help of a claimant to the Tunis rulership. He organized a 'force' of 8 Marines, 2 navy midshipmen and the rebel Arab force. They marched 600 miles along the coast and at the Battle of Derna captured the place, whereupon the Marines hoisted the American Flag.

Meanwhile the American diplomats were in Tripoli and Tunis negotiating a peace treaty. So Eaton was ordered to return Derna to Tripoli. He returned to the U.S. as a great hero and the event entered the Marine Corps song. The result was that Eaton accused the Jefferson administration of failure and the Federalist Party took up the cause. An early example of partisan politics entering foreign relations. In 1807 Eaton testified against Aaron Burr in the latter's trial for Treason.

The Wikipedia entry begins with education after the Revolution and is general in its discussion, but with many links to specific issues.

He was a very learned philosopher, a strict Calvinist, Congregationalist Protestant. He entered Yale College just under age 13 where he was greatly influenced by John Locke's book - Essay on Human Understanding. He was also greatly interested in science and the work of Sir Isaac Newton. He was a leading preacher of the First Great Awakening, beginning in 1731. He was a very influential orator and author of many books, of which some are available today. Yale University Library has a great many manuscripts of his writings and they are available on line.

He was the Grand father of Aaron Burr.

He succeeded his father at 4th Baronet in 1740 and 2nd Earl Egremont in 1750 on the death of his uncle. He also received the Percy estates and castles. He was a member of Parliament, House of Lords, and in 1761 was appointed Secretary of State for the Southern Department. He worked in the cabinet with Grenville and Halifax on colonial issues and the conclusion of the Seven Years' War.

His son, George, 3rd Earl Egremont, had 40 illegitimate children by 15 mistresses, but only one legitimate heir.

The Constitution established an indirect process for electing the president and vice-president through an electoral college. The electors are chosen by states, each state having as many electors as the combined number of its Representatives and Senators. The Constitution does not specify how or by whom the electors are to be chosen, so that decision is left to the states.

The Wikipedia entry has an excellent history of the Electoral College and a map showing the results for the 2016 election.

She was queen during the era in which the first English explorers and adventurers visited the areas that became the English colonies in America.

He graduated from Harvard in 1747 where he excelled in Greek and Latin. He was a lawyer and active in the Sons of Liberty. He was a delegate to the ContinentalCongress. He became a judge in the Rhode Island Supreme Court and was an active abolitionist.

He signed the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence as delegate from Rhode Island. His biography is with the list of signers.

He was born in Scotland and moved to Pennsylvania in 1746. In 1763 he was appointed collector of the port of New York. During the Revolution he held various offices in the city. He was the last British military governor - 1783. He then returned to Scotland.

He was a lawyer, revolutionary and Senator from Conn.

He was a Presbyterian Minister and leader in the Second Great Awakening movement

The act of setting free, especially slaves. When an owner sets his slaves free, he emancipates them, when government sets them free, that is the abolition of slavery

This executive proclamation by President Lincoln freed 3 million slaves in specified areas as a war measure and applied to areas in the South then in rebellion, but not to the states loyal to the Union at the time..

This Wikipedia article includes embargoes in its general essay on economic sanctions. There are a wide variety of types of embargoes - more or less severe, and they are often more severe than other types of economic sanctions. The embargo in 1807 is an example.

This was enacted by Congress with support from President Jefferson, against both France and England, who were at war and both interfering with American shipping. And England was taking seamen off American ships. Jefferson hoped this would force Britain and France to amend their ways. But the result was that it greatly adversely impacted the American economy and did nothing significant to its intended targets. It was unpopular and rescinded.

He was a very influential leader of the 'transcendentalist' movement, a poet, leader of the 'romantic movement' and Unitarian. He made a career out of public speaking as well.

This is the act of Leaving a country - Immigration is the act of entering a country.

These are the power of government that are listed or specified in the Constitution. For example, the power of the government to borrow money on the credit of the United States is enumerated in the Constitution. Strict constructionists usually insist that any power exercised must either be enumerated or be necessary to carry out one that is.

This Wikipedia article discusses enumerated powers in a full essay on these and other powers given in the Constitution to the government.

The process of designing and running a new (often small) business.

The Wikipedia entry continues with much detail on the topic.

This is a term coined by Cameron Addis in an essay describing the political, social situation in the United States between 1800 and 1815. He chose the title 'Era of Bad Feelings' as a counter point to the term "Era of Good Feeling" which was described as being from 1817 to 1825

The term was coined by Benjamin Russell to connote the period after the effective end of influence of the Federalist Party and unification of popular belief and hopes around the followers of Thomas Jefferson - Madison and Monroe and John Q. Adams.

The 'good feelings' soon disintegrated with the factional struggle within the Democratic Party and the conflict between Andrew Jackson and Whig party plus the Bank War and Panic of 1837.

This canal in New York between the Hudson River and Great Lakes was the second longest in the world. It reduced transportation costs by 95%. It made New York the leading port and then financial center in the United States.

The canal continued to function, but was gradually made less economic due to the development of railroads.

This Wikipedia entry discusses this under the title 'state religion'. This is a particular religion which is supported by or receives favored treatment from government. The Constitution prohibits Congress to establish a religion for the United States, or to interfere with the exercise of religion. Historically, he phrase has usually been 'established church' not 'established religion'.

Actually the Constitution prohibits Congress from taking any action about 'establishment' including disestablishment because at the time Congregational churches were established in several states.

He was a radical reformer and champion of the Free Soil movement that advocated sale of the western frontier land. He is termed 'the Father of the Homestead Act" which was passed in 1862, during the Civil War without participation of the Southern States.

He was born in Delaware and became an inventor, engineer and businessman. He was the first American to build a high pressure steam engine. He had many inventions including automated factor production. He built the first automobile and first amphibious vehicle.

The excellent Wikipedia essay describes his many achievements and notes that he was much under rated and overlooked during his life time.

He was a Whig politician, orator, Representative, Senator, state Governor, Minister, Secretary of State.

But he is most famous as the renowned popular orator who was invited to give the main address at the Gettysburg Cemetary and who spoke for two hours prior to Lincoln's address. Everett wrote to congratulate Lincoln on his superior address.

This was an important Supreme Court decision declaring President Lincoln's use of military courts in peacetime of where civilian courts were functioning to be Unconstitutional. The case arose from military trial of 3 individuals of whom Milligan became the namesake for history.

What is now usually described as an interest group. Political parties not in power were sometimes referred to an even denounced as factions in the early years of the Republic. American politics remained largely factional until the elections in 1830's when many separate interests joined either the Whig or Democrat parties.

In classical and early modern times 'factions' were usually created around a political figure. Their history was considered dangerous by the authors of the Constitution

He was born in the Bahamas where his father, Sir George Faifax, was governor. George's first cousin was Thomas, 6th Lord Faifax of Cameron. Thomas brought them to Virginia where he held extensive land (later Faifax and other Counties). There George William became a good friend of his neighbor, George Washington. In 1757 he inherited Belvoir plantation. His wife was Sally Fairfax, also a close friend of George Washington. During the Revolution he moved to England.

He was the 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and holder of a huge part of northern Virginia. He was a Scottish Peer and the only peer to actually come to his holdings in America, which he inherited from his mother's Culpeper side ( over 5 million acres - most of northern Virginia from the Northern Neck into the Shenandoah Valley) where he set up his personal domain where Martinsburg is now. He took a liking to the young George Washington and employed him as a surveyor.

He decided to come to supervise his lands (30 plantations) when he read in an obituary in London papers about the huge estate of Robert "king' Carter, whom he was employing as local agent of his estates. He sensed he better supervise personally. Fairfax county and city are names for him as are many other places - plus others named Culpeper.

This was the final, decisive American victory in the NorthwestIndian war of 1785 - 1795 for control of the Northwest Territories ceeded to the United States by Great Britain in 1783. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 had given the Ohio territory to the Americans, but the local Indians claimed the British and Americans had no right to the area as the Indians had not been consulted. They formed a Western Confederacy and won several engagements in 1790 and 1791. In 1792 President Washington ordered General May Anthony Wayne to defeat the Indians. The Indian leaders were the Shawnee - Wiapiersenwalt _Blue Jacket - The Delaware (Lenape) chief - Buckangahela - and the Miami Chief - Michikinikwa - Little Turtle. They demanded the return to status of Treaty of Fort Stanwix, which had preserved their lands. Wayne led a well trained regular army force with Choctaw and Chickasawscouts north from Cincinnati and defeated the Indians at Fallen Timbers

The result of the battle and war led to the Treaty of Greenville between Wayne and Little Turtle that kept the peace there until Tecumseh rebelled and was defeated at Battle of Tippicanoe.
Today the site of the battle is a national Historical Site

He rose in the U.S. Naval Service in the Civil War to rank of admiral. He captured New Orleans and Port Hudson on the Mississippi. Then captured Mobile, giving the famous order 'Damm the torpedoes, full steam ahead'.

He was born in England where his father later became director of the Bank of England. He was highly educated in arts and sciences. He sailed to Virginia in 1758 to become Lt. Governor, which post he held until his death. He acted as governor during the absences of the governors - John Campbell, the 4th Earl of Loudoun and of General Jeffrey Amhurst

Fauquier and Loudoun counties are named for these gentlemen.

This is a general article about 'federalism' as a method for organizing government. This is a system of government in which the powers are divided between the general government and those of territorial divisions of government, both of which have jurisdiction on people within their bounds. The United States is a prime example of a country in which such powers of government have been divided, indeed, the Founders of the United Sates invented the system.

Here is the article on the specific structure of federalism in the United States. As the article notes "it is the constitutional relationship between the state governments and the federal government". It describes the historical origins of the federal structure as an outgrowth of the problems facing government under the Articles of Confederation.

The famous series of 85 articles published in American newspapers in support of the ratification of the new Constitution. They remain in print today and are a major reference to the purposes of the Constitution

The political party led by Alexander Hamilton and John Adams. it was the first party to hold power in the United States, and at the height of its following in the last years of the 18th century, it was strong throughout the country. However, after 1801, its following began to decline and, after that, was concentrated mostly in New England. After 1817, it was no longer a major factor in national politics.

He was a Maine state Whig then Republican - Representative and Senator, and Sec. of Treasury in which position he conducted monetary and fiscal policy. As a Senator he strongly voted to acquit President Johnson

He was a farmer and businessman. He represented Georgia in the Constitutional Convention. At the beginning of the Revolution, Few, joined the Richmond Regiment of Georgia. Due to his leadership skill he rose through the ranks. His unit participated in the disastrous siege of Savannah from which his regiment formed a rear guard during the retreat. He then shifted west to confront the Creek Indians who supported the British. His skill resulted in the British being prevented from gaining control of all of Georgia. This led to his increasing political prominence and election to the Georgia legislature. From there he was sent to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He was selected to be one of the Georgia first U.S. Senators.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as a delegate from Georgia. He is considered a Founding Father of the United States.

In 1799 at the behest of his wife, he moved the family to New York City, where he then engaged in banking and local politics.

A form of money whose value is decreed by government as 'legal tender'. It is usually paper money, whose value is maintained by the government by acceptance as taxes. This Wikipedia entry includes some interesting historical examples dating back to China.

Today the great majority of American money is created by negociable credit shown in the electronic systems of the banking industry. Arguments over the use of 'fiat' money are political and seemingly never ending.

He was born to a very poor family of long time ancestors in New York State. His father was Nathaniel Fillmore and his Grand father was Nathaniel Fillmore Sr. (1739 - 1814) who was a member of the Green Mountain Boys and a Lt. in the American Revolution. Millard was the last Whig president. He was instrumental in passage of the Compromise of 1850. He lost to Winfield Scott in 1852. He was candidate again in 1856 for the Know Nothing Party

He was the 12th Vice President and 13th President upon death of ZacharyTaylor

He was a Presbyterian Miniser and social reformer. He was a leader in the Second Great Awakening and is called the Father of modern Revivalism

This was the first official U.S. Army expedition into the southwest plains. It departed Fort Gibsonunder command of General Henry Leavenworth. The expedition had John Gantt and some Indians along as guides and interpreters. The weather and terrain was terrible, 150 of the 500 men in the expedition died including General Leavenworth. The command continued, being lead by Colonel Henry Dodge. They campaigned to Bent's Fort where they conducted a meeting with the Araphoe and other tribes. They did succeed in establishing friendly relations with several local tribes.

George Catlin, the famous painter of the early west was among the party and painted scenes. There were many others as well. including Jefferson Davis, Stephen Kearny, Jessy Chisholm. Philip St. George Cooke, and John Burgwin. This was at the time when the eastern Indians -Creeks, Choctaw, Cherokee were being moved into Oklahoma, so establishing relations with the local Indians was very important.

Actually there were four acts designed to control the newly conquered southern states and help the freed slaves. They were passed again over President Johnson's veto. Among other things they required the southern states to ratify the 14th Amendment. But the establishment whites managed to circumvent most of the requirements.

He was known as "Big Jim" and "Diamond Jim". He was a stockbroker and manipulator. With partner, Jay Gould he tried to use manipulation of President Grant to corner the gold market, but failed. He was a notorious "robber baron", He was murdered.

Universalist author

He was a social theorist from the Southern states who was strongly pro-slavery, not only of blacks but whites also, and also strongly anti-capitalist

He was born in Ireland and for a time was a seaman. He is first known to be in St. Louis in 1823. From then he was a 'mountain man' trapper and head of the Rocky MountainFur Company. With Jeddiah Smith he discovered South Pass in Wyoming. He led the first two wagon trains to Oregon. In 1831 he participated in a dangerous trade caravan from Independence to Santa Fe where he signed up Kit Carson. That was the trade caravan in which Jeddiah Smith was killed by Comanches. He was the official guide for John C. Fremont's second expedition and he led Philip Kearny's dragoon expedition into the plains to show off the howitzers to the Indians. He also led General Stephen Kearny. In 1851 he helped negotiate the Fort LaramieTreaty, the largest assembly of plains Indians. He was a staunch supporter of the Native Americans, well respected by them for his efforts to secure justice. In 1853-54 he went to Washington D. C. to work on treaties but died of pneumonia and was buried in Congressional Cemetery..

One specialist researcher on 'mountain men' has noted that Fitzpatrick is mentioned in more eye-witness diaries of his fellow participants than any other individual. He was everywhere and met everyone. He worked out of Bent's Fort many times.

He was a business man engaged in trade with the West Indies. His business, then, was severely hurt by the British taxes and customs duties on eve of the Revolution. He served in local militia and helped organize logistics for the Continental Army and organize the Navy. He represented Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress in 1782, The Constitutional Convention in 1787 and the U. S. Congress in its first three sessions.

He signed the U.S. Constitution as delegate from Pennsylvania. He is one of only two Catholic signers, along with Daniel Carroll.

He lived in upstate New York and fought in militia as a very young man in the War of 1812. He became a newspaper man and politician in New York.

He was Governor of New York from 1692 to 1697.

This was an early and lasting 'landmark' decision by the Supreme Court. It stated the doctrine that the Supreme Court could declare the decisions of a state court 'unconstitutional'. But the main purpose of the decision was to uphold the legality of contracts.

The issue arose in Georgia when the two land speculators argued over contracts and the Georgia legislature rewrote the law and the two appealed to the state court.

He was a major general of militia during the Revolutionary War. He was a delegate to the First Continental Congress in 1774. And he was a member of the New York Senate 1777 - 1788. He was elected to the First United States Congress. He was a presidential elector in 1792, 1800 and 1804.

He signed the Declaration of Independence as delegate from New York.
The family estate on Long Island has remained active through 8 generations of the Floyd family. The town of Floyd, N.Y. is named for him, as are several public schools.

He was a friend of Ceran St. Vrain and joined him in 1845 to travel to New Mexico and stay at Bent's Fort. He went with Ceran on the annual caravan between the fort and West Point - Ft. Leavenworth. From there in 1846 he again joined the annual caravan back to New Mexico.

He was born in New Orleans. After his parents were killed in a hurricane he moved to enter the fur trade in Missouri. In the 1820's and 30's he led fur trading expeditions into the Rocky Mountains as far as Utah with Joshua Pilcher. In 1828 -38 he worked with the American Fur Company. He knew many of the famous mountain men. He was treated for Cholera by Dr. Marcus Whitman. . He operated a trading post at Bellevue on the Missouri River and later sold it to the government. When he died in 1840 he was attended by Father DeSmitt..

Another reference

He was Union naval commander of river flotilia that accompanied General Grant to attack Fort Donoldson.

John Forbes was a professional British Army officer who served during much of the 18th Century. He was an officer initially in the Scots Greys. He led the British campaign in 1758 to capture fort Duquense by constructing a new road (Forbes Road) through the Pennsylvania wilderness directly west from Carlisle. In this he delegated the lead command to Henry Bouquet.

See above entry for Bouquet for details of the campaign

Despite no formal military education, he rose from private to Lt. General in the Confederate Army. His speciality was mobile war, for which he wrote a doctrine book. Prior to the war he was a wealthy planter and real estate investor. During the war he was recognized for his brilliant tactics - but his simple doctrine was 'to be firstus with the mostest'. After the war he joined the KKK.

He was a politician, Representative, Senator, Governor, Sec. of State for Andrew Jackson and slave owner.

This is a link to a remarkable Wikipedia entry that has links to a long alphabetical list of forts in use during the French and Indian Wars.

The fort (ruin) was located near the Canadian River in the far north part of Texas near the Oklahoma panhandle. It was established as a base for American trappers and traders in Comanche territory. It was built originally of logs in 1845 and then expanded with adobe by Ceran St. Vrain and William Bent in an effort to expand trading south of the Arkansas River. In the fall of 1846 the Comanches and Pawnees were on the warpath that prevented Ceran from even sending traders to the fort. But both the small fort and the supply trains between it and Bent's Fort were continually attacked by Comanche war parties so it was abandoned. In 1848 Ceran attempted to reopen it by sending Kit Carson with a party of experienced 'mountain men' including Lucien Maxwell and Blackfoot John Smith but they were attacked first by Jicarilla Apaches and then by Kiowas which forced them to bury their goods. Then William Bent in spring 1849 tried as last time and after failing blew the fort up with gunpowder. There were two battles First Battle of Adobe Walls (that is the walls left of the old fort) in 1864 in which again Kit Carson, now a U.S. Army colonel commanded. And the Second Battle of Adobe Walls in 1874.

The site is now listed in the National Register of Historic Places.

The Dutch fort built in present day Governor's Island to defend their settlement on Manhattan - New Amsterdam

This fort on the Oregon - Pacific coast was established by John J. Astor to ship fur from the Rocky Mountains and west direct to China to exchange for tea, silk and manufactured goods.

Fort Atkinson, Kansas is 2 miles west of Dodge City. The first fort here was established by the U.S. Army to protect travelers on the Santa Fe trail from Indians. A major treaty was signed there between the Government and the several Indian tribes. This was abandoned in 1853. A new post was reestablished in 1854, but no buildings were constructed. The post was again abandoned later that year.

There are forts Atkinson in Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and Wisconsin.

The fort was built by the French as a Vauban style 5 bastioned fortress on Isthmus of Chingnecto between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, Canada. The British captured it in 1755 (Battle of Fort Beausejour) and renamed it Fort Cumberland. It was part of the French defense of Acadia and continued to be important in the French and British struggle in the St. Lawrence River area.

Fort Cumberland - It has been partially restored and has a museum. It is a national historic place for Canada.

The fort was built by Henry Bouquet as a post on the Forbes road from Carlisle to Fort Pitt. It at a key location in western Pennsylvania mountains. It was built of logs as a typical Vauban style star with 5 bastions plus a ravelin protecting the gate. It served as an important supply base and staging place for campaigns during the French and Indian war and was still occupied during Pontiac's Rebellion. After that it was abandoned, but was occupied by colonial militia during the Revolution..

The fort was located 8 miles south-east of Fort Laramie on the North Platte River. It was a base for fur trappers and for defense of the Oregon Trail. It took much business from Fort Laramie due to its location. Traders would bring flour from Ft. Bent to sell to travelers going to Oregon. It burned down in 1866 and was abandoned.

This was not a real 'fort' but rather a fortified winter camp of trappers established by Captain Benjamin Bonneville on the Green River in Wyoming. But he soon decided it was a poor location and moved on into Idaho. It was nicknamed 'Fort Nonsense'.

The fort was built by California volunteers after there were attacks by the Apaches on travelers through Arizona in the Battle of ApachePass. He continued to be the central base for the campaigns against the Apache led first by Cochise in 1871 and then by Geronimo in the 1880's. It was constructed near (west) of Apache Pass.

The Fort Bowie National Historical Site was authorized in 1964 and created in 1972. The site is 990 acres in extent, including the location of the battle of Apache Pass. It is administered by the National Park Service. A main purpose is to memorialize the Butterfield Mail Route, which the fort defended.

The fort was originally established by "mountain men' Jim Bridgerand Louis Vasquez as a fur trading post on Black's Fork of the Green River in south-west Wyoming. It became a key supply point on the California Trail, Oregon Trail and Mormon Trail. In 1858 the army established a military fort which remained until 1890. In 1847 the Mormons seized the post and claimed that they bought it from Bridger and Vasquez. In 1857 during the Utah War the post was burned. In 1858 William Carter became the post sutler and remained there throughout its history. The U.S. Government rejected the claims of both the Mormons and Bridger and established its own official army fort. During the Civil War the fort was at first abandoned but then reoccupied. From then on it had a very colorful history. It was a post on the Pony Express route.

The fort now is in the town of Ft. Bridger. Some buildings remain. It is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. An annual festival to the Old West is held here.

The fort was located at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers on the western border of North Dakota by Company C of the 13th Infantry Regiment. It was named for Major General John Buford, the great cavalry commander during the Civil War. The construction camp was immediately attacked repeatedly by Sioux under Sitting Bull. Then they were besieged all winter and cut off from the river. With the spring opening of the Missouri steam boats brought supplies and a much larger garrison. But Indian attacks continued into 1870. The fort continued to be expanded and improved through out the 1880's. It was a major supply post for the cavalry expeditions throughout the Indian Wars. It was the location of Sitting Bull's surrender in 1881. It was decommissioned in 1895.

It is listed in the U.S. National Register of Historic places., The fort's isolation during the siege led to a press campaign of 'false news' such as we see today. Many eastern newspapers took to publishing a claim that the entire garrison party had been wiped out and worse. Then they escalated their attacks claiming the the War Department was concealing the massacre.

The fort was constructed by French commander, Piere de Rigaud de Vandreuil to protect the strategic avenue between the Hudson River and Canada along Lake Champlain. It was attacked by British General James Abercombie (failed) Battle of Carillon. It was later renamed Fort Ticonderoga

The fort became a ruin in centuries after it lost significance but now has been restored and turned into a very popular tourist destination.

The small triangular fort was established on the St. John's River at present day Jacksonville, Florida. It was the brief French effort to establish a colony in Georgia or Florida. The first expedition was led by Jean Ribault and Rene Goulaine de Laudonniere in 1562. They established a colony called Charlesfort on Paris Island. While Ribault was detained from his second voyage de Laudonniere led about 200 men back to Florida and built Fort Caroline. The tiny colony was declining in 1565 when John Hawkins happened by and exchanged goods that enabled it to survive. One unexpected result was that Hawkins took tobacco supplied by the French colony back to England. In August Ribault finally returned with a larger fleet and more soldiers and women. But so did the Spanish, ordered by the government to remove the French. Both fleets suffered great loss in a hurricane. But under cover of the storm the Spanish moved overland and surprised the small French garrison. Laudonniere managed to escape but Ribault and most of the men were executed. The Spanish destroyed the French fort but built their own on the location. In 1568 another French naval force returned and in revenge destroyed the fort and executed the Spanish.

The exact location of the fort has not been found. But in 1953 the National Park Service established a memorial to the fort on the St. John's River. And in 1964 they built a replica fort to show what the original may have appeared,

The Wikipedia entry has interesting illustrations of the fort and local Indians.

The Dutch from New Amsterdam built the fort near present New Castle south of the Swedish Fort Christina to block Swedish encroachment on their territory of New Netherland and to be in a better location to conduct fur trade with the Lenape Indians. It changed hands three from 1664 when the British first took all New Netherland from the Dutch, then the Dutch retook it and finally the British again took control. It was abandoned in 1675

The fort was constructed as part of the operation to remove the Cherokee from Georgia, Carolina, Tennessee and Alabama. It was located at present day Charleston, Tennessee. In 1838 the large number of Cherokee camped there temporarily on their journey to Oklahoma. Prior to the fort, the location was the site of the Cherokee agency headquarters, the government agency that dealt with the Indians. Many of the Cherokee died from disease during their enforced stay there.

Nothing remains now of this Fort Cass. The Wikipedia entry descries some of the events of the period during which the Cherokee were camped there. It has a link to the Indian Removal Act.

This trading post was built by John Gantt and Jefferson Blackwell on the Arkansas River near the mouth of Fountain Creek. It was soon put out of business by William Bent.

This Fort was the first settlement of the Swedish colony on the Delaware River near present day Wilmington. It was renamed Fort Altena by the Dutch when they captured it. It was named for the Queen of Sweden. The first settlers arrived on the Kalmar Nyckel led by Peter Minuit. The fort's earthworks were strengthened in 1640 and entirely rebuilt in 1647. The Swedes were in continual conflict with the Dutch who claimed the area as part of New Netherland. The Dutch built Fort Casimir in 1651 which the Swedes than captured. This brought the Dutch under Peter Stuyvesant back in force in 1655 to besiege Christina and expel the Swedish government, leaving the colonists to remain.

In 1938 the State of Delaware to celebrate the 300 anniversary of the Swedish colony established a memorial with a model of the Kalmay Nyckel and Christina State Park. There was a big ceremony with President Roosevelt and Swedish Crown Prince Gustaf Adolph. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961. In 2013 for the 375th anniversary Swedish King Carl Gustav XVI and V. P Biden reenacted the landing.

In 1860 a band of Bannock and Paiute Indians attacked Williams Station on the Carson River in Nevada. This led to the Pyramid Lake War and the Second Battle of Pyramid Lake. It became also a pony express station. During the Civil War it was an important supply and transit post. After that war it was abandoned in 1869.

The reconstructed ruin is in the list of the national Historic Landmarks.

This was the camp and fort built by Lewis and Clark during their winter stay on the Pacific coast. The location of the fort was recommended to them by the local Clatsop Indians so it was named for them. When they departed to travel east, Lewis gave the fort to the Clatsop chief. In the following years the location became an important one in the fur trade as both the Hudson's Bay Company and John J. Astor built posts to collect fur for shipment to China.

The fort is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Wikipedia entry has an interesting description of the entire process in which the Corps of Discovery spent the winter.

The 'fort' was established (but walls were not built) in Colorado to increase protection for travelers on the Overland Trail. More settlers soon came to the location and a town was established - now Fort Collins, Colorado

The fort was located along the Rio Grande River in south east New Mexico. A garrison was located near by at the end of the Mexican War. In 1853 a new fort was built and named Fort Craig. The purpose was to support campaigns against the Navajo and Apache. In Feb. 1862 Confederate General Henry Hopkins Sibley led a force of Texas mounted infantry there. But he considered the fort too strong to attack, so marched around it. Whereupon the Union garrison met him at the Battle of Valverde near the fort. After the war, the fort continued to support campaigns against the Apache until 1885.

The fort is in the National Register of Historic Places