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Seleucus I Nicator c. 358 BC – September
281; . 'Seleucus the Victor') was one of the Diadochi (the rival generals,
relatives, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his
empire after his death). Having previously served as an infantry general under
Alexander the Great, he eventually assumed the title of basileus and
established the Seleucid Empire over the bulk of the territory which Alexander
had conquered in Asia. After the death of Alexander in June 323, Seleucus
initially supported Perdiccas, the regent of Alexander's empire, and was
appointed Commander of the Companions and chiliarch at the
Partition of Babylon in 323. However,
after the outbreak of the Wars of the Diadochi in 322, Perdiccas' military
failures against Ptolemy in Egypt led to the mutiny of his troops in Pelusium.
Perdiccas was betrayed and assassinated in a conspiracy by Seleucus,
Peithon and Antigenes in
Pelusium sometime in either 321 or 320. At the
Partition of Triparadisus in 321,
Seleucus was appointed Satrap of Babylon under the new regent
Antipater. But almost immediately, the wars between
the Diadochi resumed and Antigonus forced Seleucus to flee Babylon. Seleucus
was only able to return to Babylon in 312 with the support of Ptolemy. From
312, Seleucus ruthlessly expanded his dominions and eventually conquered the
Persian and Median lands. Seleucus ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire
enormous eastern part of Alexander's empire. Seleucus further made claim to the
former satraps in Gandhara and in the Indus.
However these ambitions were contested by Chandragupta Maurya, resulting in the
Seleucid–Mauryan
War (305–303 ). The conflict was ultimately resolved by a treaty
resulting in the Maurya Empire annexing the eastern satraps. Additionally, a
marriage alliance between the two empires was formalized with Chandragupta
marrying the Seleucid Princess Berenice (Suvarnnaksi in Pali). Furthermore, the
Seleucid Empire received a considerable military force of 500 war elephants
with mahouts, which would play a decisive role against Antigonus at the
Battle of Ipsus in 301 and against Lysimachus at the
Battle of Corupedium in 281. Seleucus' victories against Antigonus and
Lysimachus left the Seleucid dynasty virtually unopposed amongst the Diadochi.
However, Seleucus also hoped to take control of Lysimachus' European
territories, primarily Thrace and Macedon itself. But upon arriving in Thrace
in 281, Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, who had taken refuge at
the Seleucid court with his sister Lysandra. The assassination of Seleucus
destroyed Seleucid prospects in Thrace and Macedon, and paved the way for
Ptolemy Ceraunus to absorb much of Lysimachus' former power in Macedon.
Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus I as ruler of the Seleucid empire.
Seleucus founded a number of new cities during his reign, including Antioch
(300 ) and in particular Seleucia on the Tigris (c. 305 ), the new capital of
the Seleucid Empire, a foundation that eventually depopulated Babylon.
Youth and family:
Seleucus was the son of Antiochus (not to be
confused with many other Antiochus kings who followed Seleucus). Historian
Junianus Justinus claims that Antiochus was one of Philip II of Macedon's
generals, but no such general is mentioned in any other sources, and nothing is
known of his supposed career under Philip. It is possible that Antiochus was a
member of an upper Macedonian noble family. Seleucus' mother was supposedly
called Laodice, but nothing else is known of her. Later, Seleucus named a
number of cities after his parents. (50 including Antioch in Syria - JS)
Seleucus was born in Europos, located in the northern part of Macedonia. Just a
year before his birth (if the year 358 is accepted as the most likely date),
the Paeonians invaded the region. Philip defeated the invaders and only a few
years later utterly subdued them under Macedonian rule. Seleucus' year of birth
is unclear. Justin claims he was 77 years old during the battle of Corupedium,
which would place his year of birth at 358 . Appianus tells us Seleucus was 73
years old during the battle, which means 354 would be the year of birth.
Eusebius of Caesarea, however, mentions the age of 75, and thus the year 356 ,
making Seleucus the same age as Alexander the Great. This is most likely
propaganda on Seleucus' part to make him seem comparable to Alexander. As a
teenager, Seleucus was chosen to serve as the king's page (paides). It was
customary for all male offspring of noble families to first serve in this
position and later as officers in the king's army. A number of legends, similar
to those told of Alexander the Great, were told of Seleucus. It was said
Antiochus told his son before he left to battle the Persians with Alexander
that his real father was actually the god Apollo. The god had left a ring with
a picture of an anchor as a gift to Laodice. Seleucus had a birthmark shaped
like an anchor. It was told that Seleucus' sons and grandsons also had similar
birthmarks. The story is similar to the one told about Alexander. Most likely
the story is merely propaganda by Seleucus, who presumably invented the story
to present himself as the natural successor of Alexander. John Malalas tells us
Seleucus had a sister called Didymeia, who had sons called Nicanor and
Nicomedes. It is most likely the sons are fictitious. Didymeia might refer to
the oracle of Apollo in Didyma near Miletus. It has also been suggested that
Ptolemy (son of Seleucus) was actually the uncle of Seleucus.
Early career under Alexander the Great:
Seleucus led the Royal Hypaspistai during Alexander's Persian campaign. In
spring 334 , as a young man of about twenty-three, Seleucus accompanied
Alexander into Asia. By the time of the Indian campaigns beginning in late in
327 , he had risen to the command of the élite infantry corps in the
Macedonian army, the "Shield-bearers" (Hypaspistai, later known as
the "Silvershields"). It is said by Arrian that when Alexander
crossed the Hydaspes river on a boat, he was accompanied by Perdiccas, Ptolemy
I Soter, Lysimachus and also Seleucus. During the subsequent
Battle of the Hydaspes (326), Seleucus led
his troops against the elephants of King Porus. It is unknown the extent in
which Seleucus participated in the actual planning of the battle, as he is not
mentioned as holding any major independent position during the battle. This
contrasts Craterus, Hephaistion, Peithon and Leonnatus – each of whom had
sizable detachments under his control. Seleucus' Royal Hypaspistai were
constantly under Alexander's eye and at his disposal. They later participated
in the Indus Valley campaign, in the battles fought against the Malli and in
the crossing of the Gedrosian desert. At the great marriage ceremony at Susa in
the spring of 324 , Seleucus married Apama (daughter of Spitamenes), and she
bore him his eldest son and successor Antiochus I Soter, at least three
legitimate daughters (Laodice, Berenice and Apama) and possibly another son
(Achaeus). At the same event, Alexander married the daughter of the late
Persian King Darius III
while several other Macedonians married Persian women. After Alexander's death
(323 ), when the other senior Macedonian officers unloaded their "Susa
wives" en masse, Seleucus was one of the very few who kept theirs, and
Apama remained his consort (later Queen) for the rest of her life.
Ancient sources mention Seleucus three times before the death of Alexander. He
participated in a sailing trip near Babylon, took part in the dinner party of
Medeios the Thessalian with Alexander and visited the temple of the god
Serapis. In the first of these episodes, Alexander's diadem was blown off his
head and landed on some reeds near the tombs of Assyrian kings. Seleucus swam
to fetch the diadem back, placing it on his own head while returning to the
boat to keep it dry. The validity of the story is dubious. The story of the
dinner party of Medeios may be true, but the plot to poison the King is
unlikely. In the final story, Seleucus reportedly slept in the temple of
Serapis in the hope that Alexander's health might improve. The validity of this
story is also questionable, as the Graeco-Egyptian Serapis had not been
invented at the time.
Senior officer under Perdiccas:
Ptolemy, an officer under Alexander the Great, was nominated as the satrap of
Egypt. Ptolemy made Egypt independent and proclaimed himself King and Pharaoh.
Main article: Diadochi:
Alexander the Great died without a successor in Babylon on June 10, 323 . His
general Perdiccas became the regent of all of Alexander's empire, while
Alexander's physically and mentally disabled half-brother Arrhidaeus was chosen
as the next king under the name Philip III of Macedon. Alexander's unborn child
(Alexander IV) was also named his father's successor. In the "Partition of Babylon" however, Perdiccas
effectively divided the enormous Macedonian dominion among Alexander's
generals. Seleucus was chosen to command the Companion cavalry (hetairoi) and
appointed first or court chiliarch, which made him the senior officer in the
Royal Army after the regent and commander-in-chief Perdiccas. Several other
powerful men supported Perdiccas, including Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Peithon and
Eumenes. Perdiccas' power depended on his ability to hold Alexander's enormous
empire together, and on whether he could force the satraps to obey him. War
soon broke out between Perdiccas and the other Diadochi. To cement his
position, Perdiccas tried to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra.
The First War of the Diadochi began when
Perdiccas sent Alexander's corpse to Macedonia for burial. Ptolemy however
captured the body and took it to Alexandria. Perdiccas and his troops followed
him to Egypt, whereupon Ptolemy conspired with the satrap of Media, Peithon,
and the commander of the Argyraspides, Antigenes, both serving as officers
under Perdiccas, and assassinated him. Cornelius Nepos mentions that Seleucus
also took part in this conspiracy, but this is not certain.
Satrap of Babylon:
The most powerful man in the empire after the death of Perdiccas was
Antipater. Perdiccas' opponents gathered in
Triparadisos, where the empire of Alexander was partitioned again (the
Treaty of Triparadisus 321). At
Triparadisos the soldiers had become mutinous and were planning to murder their
master Antipater. Seleucus and Antigonus, however, prevented this. For
betraying Perdiccas, Seleucus was awarded the rich province of Babylon. This
decision may have been Antigonus' idea. Seleucus' Babylon was surrounded by
Peucestas, the satrap of Persis; Antigenes, the new satrap of Susiana and
Peithon of Media. Babylon was one of the wealthiest provinces of the empire,
but its military power was insignificant. It is possible that Antipater divided
the eastern provinces so that no single satrap could rise above the others in
power.
After the death of Alexander, Archon of Pella was chosen satrap of Babylon.
Perdiccas, however, had plans to supersede Archon and nominate Docimus as his
successor. During his invasion of Egypt, Perdiccas sent Docimus along with his
detachments to Babylon. Archon waged war against him, but fell in battle. Thus,
Docimus was not intending to give Babylon to Seleucus without a fight. It is
not certain how Seleucus took Babylon from Docimus, but according to one
Babylonian chronicle an important building was destroyed in the city during the
summer or winter of 320 . Other Babylonian sources state that Seleucus arrived
in Babylon in October or November 320 . Despite the presumed battle, Docimus
was able to escape. Meanwhile, the empire was once again in turmoil. Peithon,
the satrap of Media, assassinated Philip, the satrap of Parthia, and replaced
him with his brother Eudemus as the new satrap. In the west Antigonus and
Eumenes waged war against each other. Just like Peithon and Seleucus, Eumenes
was one of the former supporters of Perdiccas. Seleucus' biggest problem was,
however, Babylon itself. The locals had rebelled against Archon and supported
Docimus. The Babylonian priesthood had great influence over the region. Babylon
also had a sizeable population of Macedonian and Greek veterans of Alexander's
army. Seleucus won over the priests with monetary gifts and bribes.
Second War of the Diadochi:
Main article: Second War of the Diadochi:
After the death of Antipater in 319, the satrap of Media began to expand his
power. Peithon assembled a large army of perhaps over 20,000 soldiers. Under
the leadership of Peucestas the other satraps of the region brought together an
opposing army of their own. Peithon was finally defeated in a battle waged in
Parthia. He escaped to Media, but his opponents did not follow him and rather
returned to Susiana. Meanwhile, Eumenes and his army had arrived at Cilicia,
but had to retreat when Antigonus reached the city. The situation was difficult
for Seleucus. Eumenes and his army were north of Babylon; Antigonus was
following him with an even larger army; Peithon was in Media and his opponents
in Susiana. Antigenes, satrap of Susiana and commander of the Argyraspides, was
allied with Eumenes. Antigenes was in Cilicia when the war between him and
Peithon began. Peithon arrived at Babylon in the autumn or winter of 317 .
Peithon had lost a large number of troops, but Seleucus had even fewer
soldiers. Eumenes decided to march to Susa in the spring of 316 . The satraps
in Susa had apparently accepted Eumenes' claims of his fighting on behalf of
the lawful ruling family against the usurper Antigonus.
Eumenes marched his army 300 stadions away
from Babylon and tried to cross the Tigris. Seleucus had to act. He sent two
triremes and some smaller ships to stop the crossing. He also tried to get the
former hypasiti of the Argyraspides to join him, but this did not happen.
Seleucus also sent messages to Antigonus. Because of his lack of troops,
Seleucus apparently had no plans to actually stop Eumenes. He opened the flood
barriers of the river, but the resulting flood did not stop Eumenes. In the
spring of 316 , Seleucus and Peithon joined Antigonus, who was following
Eumenes to Susa. From Susa Antigonus went to Media, from where he could
threaten the eastern provinces. He left Seleucus with a small number of troops
to prevent Eumenes from reaching the Mediterranean. Sibyrtius, satrap of
Arachosia, saw the situation as hopeless and returned to his own province. The
armies of Eumenes and his allies were at breaking point. Antigonus and Eumenes
had two encounters during 316 , in the battles of
Paraitacene and
Gabiene. Eumenes was defeated and executed.
The events of the Second War of the Diadochi revealed Seleucus' ability to wait
for the right moment. Blazing into battle was not his style.
Escape to Egypt:
Antigonus spent the winter of 316 in Media, whose ruler was once again Peithon.
Peithon's lust for power had grown, and he tried to get a portion of Antigonus'
troops to revolt to his side. Antigonus, however, discovered the plot and
executed Peithon. He then superseded Peucestas as satrap of Persia. In the
summer of 315 Antigonus arrived in Babylon and was warmly welcomed by Seleucus.
The relationship between the two soon turned cold, however. Seleucus punished
one of Antigonus' officers without asking permission from Antigonus. Antigonus
became angry and demanded that Seleucus give him the income from the province,
which Seleucus refused to do. He was, however, afraid of Antigonus and fled to
Egypt with 50 horsemen. It is told that Chaldean astrologers prophesied to
Antigonus that Seleucus would become master of Asia and would kill Antigonus.
After hearing this, Antigonus sent soldiers after Seleucus, who had however
first escaped to Mesopotamia and then to Syria. Antigonus executed Blitor, the
new satrap of Mesopotamia, for helping Seleucus. Modern scholars are skeptical
of the prophecy story. It seems certain, however, that the Babylonian
priesthood was against Seleucus. During Seleucus' escape to Egypt, Macedonia
was undergoing great turmoil. Alexander the Great's mother Olympias had been
invited back to Macedon by Polyperchon in order to drive Cassander out. She
held great respect among the Macedonian army but lost some of this when she had
Philip III and his wife Eurydice killed as well as many nobles whom she took
revenge upon for supporting Antipater during his long reign. Cassander
reclaimed Macedon the following year at Pydna and then had her killed.
Alexander IV, still a young child, and his mother Roxane were held guarded at
Amphipolis and died under mysterious circumstances in 310 , probably murdered
at the instigation of Cassander to allow the diadochs to assume the title of
king.
Admiral under Ptolemy:
Main article: Third War of the Diadochi
After arriving in Egypt, Seleucus sent his friends to Greece to inform his
fellow Diadochi Cassander (ruler of Macedon and overlord of Greece) and
Lysimachus (ruler of Thracia) about Antigonus. Antigonus was now the most
powerful of the Diadochi, and the others would soon have to face him. Ptolemy,
Lysimachus and Cassander formed a coalition against Antigonus. The allies sent
a proposition to Antigonus in which they demanded he give up Phoenica and Syria
to Ptolemy, Cappadocia and Lycia to Cassander, Hellespontine Phrygia to
Lysimachus, and Babylonia to Seleucus, they also demanded he share his
accumulated treasure with them. Antigonus refused, and in the spring of 314 ,
he marched against Ptolemy in Syria Seleucus acted as an admiral to Ptolemy
during the first phase of the war. Antigonus was besieging Tyre, when Seleucus
sailed past him and went on to threaten the coast of Syria and Asia Minor.
Antigonus allied with Rhodes, the island had a strategic location and its navy
was capable of preventing the allies from combining their forces. Because of
the threat of Rhodes, Ptolemy gave Seleucus a hundred ships and sent him to the
Aegean Sea. The fleet was too small to defeat Rhodes, but it was big enough to
force Asander, the satrap of Caria, to ally with Ptolemy. To demonstrate his
power, Seleucus also invaded the city of Erythrai. Polemaios, a nephew of
Antigonus, attacked Asander. Seleucus returned to Cyprus, where Ptolemy I had
sent his brother Menelaos along with 10,000 mercenaries and 100 ships. Seleucus
and Menelaos began to besiege Kition. Antigonus sent most of his fleet to the
Aegean Sea and his army to Asia Minor. Ptolemy now had an opportunity to invade
Syria, where he defeated Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, in the
battle of Gaza in 312. It is probable that
Seleucus took part in the battle. Peithon, son of Agenor, whom Antigonus had
nominated as the new satrap of Babylon, fell in the battle. The death of
Peithon gave Seleucus an opportunity to return to Babylon. Seleucus had
prepared his return to Babylon well. After the battle of Gaza Demetrius
retreated to Tripoli while Ptolemy advanced all the way to Sidon. Ptolemy gave
Seleucus 800 infantry and 200 cavalry. He also had his friends accompanying
him, perhaps the same 50 who escaped with him from Babylon. On the way to
Babylon Seleucus recruited more soldiers from the colonies along the route. He
finally had about 3,000 soldiers. In Babylon, Peithon's commander, Diphilus,
barricaded himself in the city's fortress. Seleucus conquered Babylon with
great speed and the fortress was also quickly captured. Seleucus' friends who
had stayed in Babylon were released from captivity. His return to Babylon was
afterwards officially regarded as the beginning of the Seleucid Empire[3] and
that year as the first of the Seleucid era.
Seleucus the victor:
Conquest of the eastern provinces:
Soon after Seleucus' return, the supporters of Antigonus tried to get Babylon
back. Nicanor was the new satrap of Media and the strategos of the eastern
provinces. His army had about 17,000 soldiers. Evagoras, the satrap of Aria,
was allied with him. It was obvious that Seleucus' small force could not defeat
the two in battle. Seleucus hid his armies in the marshes that surrounded the
area where Nicanor was planning to cross the Tigris and made a surprise attack
during the night. Evagoras fell in the beginning of the battle and Nicanor was
cut off from his forces. The news about the death of Evagoras spread among the
soldiers, who started to surrender en masse. Almost all of them agreed to fight
under Seleucus. Nicanor escaped with only a few men. Even though Seleucus now
had about 20,000 soldiers, they were not enough to withstand the forces of
Antigonus. He also did not know when Antigonus would begin his counterattack.
On the other hand, he knew that at least two eastern provinces did not have a
satrap. A great majority of his own troops were from these provinces. Some of
Evagoras' troops were Persian. Perhaps a portion of the troops were Eumenes'
soldiers, who had a reason to hate Antigonus. Seleucus decided to take
advantage of this situation. Seleucus spread different stories among the
provinces and the soldiers. According to one of them, he had in a dream seen
Alexander standing beside him. Eumenes had tried to use a similar propaganda
trick. Antigonus, who had been in Asia Minor while Seleucus had been in the
east with Alexander, could not use Alexander in his own propaganda. Seleucus,
being Macedonian, had the ability to gain the trust of the Macedonians among
his troops, which was not the case with Eumenes. After becoming once again
satrap of Babylon, Seleucus became much more aggressive in his politics. In a
short time he conquered Media and Susiana. Diodorus Siculus reports that
Seleucus also conquered other nearby areas, which might refer to Persis, Aria
or Parthia. Seleucus did not reach Bactria and Sogdiana. The satrap of the
former was Stasanor, who had remained neutral during the conflicts. After the
defeat of Nikanor's army, there was no force in the east that could have
opposed Seleucus. It is uncertain how Seleucus arranged the administration of
the provinces he had conquered. Most satraps had died. In theory, Polyperchon
was still the lawful successor of Antipater and the official regent of the
Macedonian kingdom. It was his duty to select the satraps. However, Polyperchon
was still allied with Antigonus and thus an enemy of Seleucus.
Response:
Antigonus sent his son Demetrius along with 15,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry
to reconquer Babylon. Apparently, he gave Demetrius a time limit, after which
he had to return to Syria. Antigonus believed Seleucus was still ruling only
Babylon. Perhaps Nicanor had not told him that Seleucus now had at least 20,000
soldiers. It seems that the scale of Nicanor's defeat was not clear to all
parties. Antigonus did not know Seleucus had conquered the majority of the
eastern provinces and perhaps cared little about the eastern parts of the
empire. When Demetrius arrived in Babylon, Seleucus was somewhere in the east.
He had left Patrocles to defend the city. Babylon was defended in an unusual
way. It had two strong fortresses, in which Seleucus had left his garrisons.
The inhabitants of the city were transferred out and settled in the
neighbouring areas, some as far as Susa. The surroundings of Babylon were
excellent for defence, with cities, swamps, canals and rivers. Demetrius'
troops started to besiege the fortresses of Babylon and conquered one of them.
The second fortress proved more difficult for Demetrius. He left his friend
Archelaus to continue the siege, and himself returned west leaving 5,000
infantry and 1,000 cavalry in Babylon. Ancient sources do not mention what
happened to these troops. Perhaps Seleucus had to reconquer Babylon from
Archelaus.
Babylonian War:
Main article: Babylonian War
the course of nine years (311–302 ), while Antigonus was occupied in the
west, Seleucus brought the whole eastern part of Alexander's empire as far as
the Jaxartes and Indus Rivers under his authority. In 311 Antigonus made peace
with Cassander, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, which gave him an opportunity to deal
with Seleucus. Antigonus' army had at least 80,000 soldiers. Even if he left
half of his troops in the west, he would still have a numerical advantage over
Seleucus. Seleucus may have received help from Cossaians, whose ancestors were
the ancient Kassites. Antigonus had devastated their lands while fighting
Eumenes. Seleucus perhaps recruited a portion of Archelaus' troops. When
Antigonus finally invaded Babylon, Seleucus' army was much bigger than before.
Many of his soldiers certainly hated Antigonus. The population of Babylon was
also hostile. Seleucus, thus, did not need to garrison the area to keep the
locals from revolting.
Little information is available about the conflict between Antigonus and
Seleucus; only a very rudimentary Babylonian chronicle detailing the events of
the war remains. The description of the year 310 has completely disappeared. It
seems that Antigonus conquered Babylon. His plans were disturbed, however, by
Ptolemy, who made a surprise attack in Cilicia. We do know that Seleucus
defeated Antigonus in at least one decisive battle.
This battle is only mentioned in Stratagems in War by Polyaenus. (Book IV
Chapter IX - JS) Polyaenus reports that the troops of Seleucus and Antigonus
fought for a whole day, but when night came the battle was still undecided. The
two forces agreed to rest for the night and continue in the morning. Antigonus'
troops slept without their equipment. Seleucus ordered his forces to sleep and
eat breakfast in battle formation. Shortly before dawn, Seleucus' troops
attacked the forces of Antigonus, who were still without their weapons and in
disarray and thus easily defeated. The historical accuracy of the story is
questionable. The Babylonian war finally ended in Seleucus' victory. Antigonus
was forced to retreat west. Both sides fortified their borders. Antigonus built
a series of fortresses along the Balikh River while Seleucus built a few
cities, including Dura-Europos and Nisibis.
Seleucia:
The next event connected to Seleucus was the founding of the city of Seleucia.
The city was built on the shore of the Tigris probably in 307 or 305. Seleucus
made Seleucia his new capital, thus imitating Lysimachus, Cassander and
Antigonus, all of whom had named cities after themselves. Seleucus also
transferred the mint of Babylon to his new city. Babylon was soon left in the
shadow of Seleucia, and the story goes that Antiochus, the son of Seleucus,
moved the whole population of Babylon to his father's namesake capital in 275 .
The city flourished until AD 165, when the Romans destroyed it. A story of the
founding of the city goes as follows: Seleucus asked the Babylonian priests
which day would be best to found the city. The priest calculated the day, but,
wanting the founding to fail, told Seleucus a different date. The plot failed
however, because when the correct day came, Seleucus' soldiers spontaneously
started building the city. When questioned, the priests admitted their deed.
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Seleucus the king:
The struggle among the Diadochi reached its climax when Antigonus, after the
extinction of the old royal line of Macedonia, proclaimed himself king in 306.
Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander and Seleucus soon followed. Also, Agathocles of
Sicily declared himself king around the same time. Seleucus, like the other
four principal Macedonian chiefs, assumed the title and style of basileus
(king).
Chandragupta and the Eastern Provinces:
Main article:
Seleucid–Mauryan war
Seleucus soon turned his attention once again eastward. In the year 305 ,
Seleucus I Nicator went to India and apparently occupied territory as far as
the Indus, and eventually waged war with the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta
Maurya.
Only a few sources mention his activities in India. Chandragupta (known in
Greek sources as Sandrokottos), founder of the Mauryan empire, had conquered
the Indus valley and several other parts of the easternmost regions of
Alexander's empire. Seleucus began a campaign against Chandragupta and crossed
the Indus. Seleucus' Indian campaign was, however, a failure. It is unknown
what exactly happened. Perhaps Chandragupta defeated Seleucus in battle. No
sources mention this, however. But as most western historians note, Seleucus
appears to have fared poorly as he did not achieve his aims. The two leaders
ultimately reached an agreement, and through a treaty sealed in 305, Seleucus
ceded a considerable amount of territory to Chandragupta in exchange for 500
war elephants, which were to play a key role in the forthcoming battles,
particularly at Ipsus. The Maurya king might
have married the daughter of his Greek rival.[43] According to Strabo, the
ceded territories bordered the Indus: The geographical position of the tribes
is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the
Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards
the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and
the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places,
in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they
formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took
these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus
Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage
and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. — Strabo 15.2.9
From this, it seems that Seleucus surrendered the easternmost provinces of
Arachosia, Gedrosia, Paropamisadae and perhaps also Aria. On the other hand, he
was accepted by other satraps of the eastern provinces. His Iranian wife,
Apama, may have helped him implement his rule in Bactria and Sogdiana. This
would tend to be corroborated archaeologically, as concrete indications of
Mauryan influence, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka which are
known to be located in, for example, Kandhahar in today's southern Afghanistan.
According to Arrian, Megasthenes lived in Arachosia and travelled to
Pataliputra as ambassador of Seleucus to the Indian ruler Chandragupta Maurya.
Some authors claim that the argument relating to Seleucus handing over more of
what is now southern Afghanistan is an exaggeration originating in a statement
by Pliny the Elder referring not specifically to the lands received by
Chandragupta, but rather to the various opinions of geographers regarding the
definition of the word "India":
Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river
Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the Gedrose, the Arachotë, the
Aria, and the Paropamisadë, the River Cophes thus forming the extreme
boundary of India. According to other writers, however, all these territories,
are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Aria. — Pliny, Natural
History VI, 23[48] Also the passage of Arrian explaining that Megasthenes lived
in Arachosia with the satrap Sibyrtius, from where he travelled to India to
visit Chandragupta Maurya, goes against the notion that Arachosia was under
Maurya rule: Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and speaks
of his often visiting Sandracottus, the king of the Indians. — Arrian,
Anabasis Alexandri v,6 Nevertheless, it is usually considered today that
Arachosia and the other three regions did become dominions of the Mauryan
Empire. The alliance between Chandragupta and Seleucus was affirmed with a
marriage (Epigamia). Chandragupta or his son may have married a daughter of
Seleucus, or perhaps there was diplomatic recognition of intermarriage between
Indians and Greeks. The Mahavamsa states Chandragupta married a daughter of
Seleucus, named Berenice. Also, an Indian Puranic source, the Pratisarga Parva
of the Bhavishya Purana, also described the marriage of Chandragupta with a
Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus (Suluva in Indian
sources). In addition to this matrimonial recognition or alliance, Seleucus
dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to the Mauryan court at Pataliputra
(Modern Patna in Bihar state). Only short extracts remain of Megasthenes'
description of the journey. The two rulers seem to have been on very good
terms, as classical sources have recorded that following their treaty,
Chandragupta sent various presents such as aphrodisiacs to Seleucus.
Seleucus obtained knowledge of most of northern India, as explained by Pliny
the Elder through his numerous embassies to the Mauryan Empire:
The other parts of the country [beyond the Hydaspes, the farthest extent of
Alexander's conquests] were discovered and surveyed by Seleucus Nicator: namely
from thence (the Hydaspes) to the Hesudrus 168 miles to the river Ioames
(Yamuna) as much: and some copies add 5 miles more therto from thence to Ganges
112 miles to Rhodapha 119, and some say, that between them two it is no less
than 325 miles. From it to Calinipaxa, a great town 167 miles-and-a-half,
others say 265. And to the confluent of the rivers Iomanes and Ganges, where
both meet together, 225 miles, and many put thereto 13 miles more from thence
to the town Palibotta 425 miles and so to the mouth of the Ganges where he
falleth into the sea 638 miles. — Pliny the Elder, Natural history, Book
6, Chap 21 Seleucus apparently minted coins during his stay in India, as
several coins in his name are in the Indian standard and have been excavated in
India. These coins describe him as "Basileus" ("King"),
which implies a date later than 306 . Some of them also mention Seleucus in
association with his son Antiochus as king, which would also imply a date as
late as 293 . No Seleucid coins were struck in India thereafter and confirm the
reversal of territory west of the Indus to Chandragupta. Seleucus may have
founded a navy in the Persian Gulf and in the Indian Ocean.
Battle of Ipsus:
Main article: Diadochi - Fourth War of the
Diadochi, 308-301
The war elephants Seleucus received from Chandragupta proved to be useful when
the Diadochi finally decided to deal with Antigonus. Cassander, Seleucus and
Lysimachus defeated Antigonus and Demetrius in the battle of Ipsus. Antigonus
fell in battle, but Demetrius escaped. After the battle, Syria was placed under
Seleucus' rule. He understood Syria to encompass the region from the Taurus
mountains to Sinai, but Ptolemy had already conquered Palestine and Phoenicia.
In 299 , Seleucus allied with Demetrius and married his daughter Stratonice.
Stratonice was also the daughter of Antipater's daughter Phila. Seleucus had a
daughter by Stratonice, who was also called Phila. The fleet of Demetrius
destroyed Ptolemy's fleet and thus Seleucus did not need to fight him.
Seleucus, however, did not manage to enlarge his kingdom to the west. The main
reason was that he did not have enough Greek and Macedonian troops. During the
battle of Ipsus, he had less infantry than Lysimachus. His strength was in his
war elephants and in traditional Persian cavalry. In order to enlarge his army,
Seleucus tried to attract colonists from mainland Greece by founding four new
cities—Seleucia Pieria and Laodicea in Syria on the coast and Antioch on
the Orontes and Apameia in the Orontes River valley. Antioch became his chief
seat of government. The new Seleucia was supposed to become his new naval base
and a gateway to the Mediterranean. Seleucus also founded six smaller cities.
It is said of Seleucus that "few princes have ever lived with so great a
passion for the building of cities. He is reputed to have built in all nine
Seleucias, sixteen Antiochs, and six Laodiceas".
Defeat of Demetrius and Lysimachus:
Seleucus nominated his son Antiochus I as his co-ruler and viceroy of the
eastern provinces in 292 , the vast extent of the empire seeming to require a
double government. In 294 Stratonice married her stepson Antiochus. Seleucus
reportedly instigated the marriage after discovering that his son was in danger
of dying of love sickness. Seleucus was thus able to get Stratonice out of the
way, as her father Demetrius had now become king of Macedonia. The alliance
between Seleucus and Demetrius ended in 294 when Seleucus conquered Cilicia.
Demetrius invaded and easily conquered Cilicia in 286 , which meant that
Demetrius was now threatening the most important regions of Seleucus' empire in
Syria. Demetrius' troops, however, were tired and had not received their
payment. Seleucus, on the other hand, was known as a cunning and rich leader
who had earned the adoration of his soldiers. Seleucus blocked the roads
leading south from Cilicia and urged Demetrius' troops to join his side.
Simultaneously he tried to evade battle with Demetrius. Finally, Seleucus
addressed Demetrius personally. He showed himself in front of the soldiers and
removed his helmet, revealing his identity. Demetrius' troops now started to
abandon their leader en masse. Demetrius was finally imprisoned in Apameia and
died a few years later in captivity. Lysimachus and Ptolemy had supported
Seleucus against Demetrius, but after the latter's defeat the alliance started
to break apart. Lysimachus ruled Macedonia, Thracia and Asia Minor. He also had
problems with his family. Lysimachus executed his son Agathocles, whose wife
Lysandra escaped to Babylon to Seleucus. The unpopularity of Lysimachus after
the murder of Agathocles gave Seleucus an opportunity to remove his last rival.
His intervention in the west was solicited by Ptolemy Keraunos, who, on the
accession to the Egyptian throne of his brother Ptolemy II (285 ), had at first
taken refuge with Lysimachus and then with Seleucus.
Seleucus then invaded Asia Minor and defeated his rival in the Battle of
Corupedium in Lydia, 281. Lysimachus fell in battle. In addition, Ptolemy
had died a few years earlier. Seleucus was thus now the only living
contemporary of Alexander.
Administration of Asia Minor:
Before his death, Seleucus tried to deal with the administration of Asia Minor.
The region was ethnically diverse, consisting of Greek cities, a Persian
aristocracy and indigenous peoples. Seleucus perhaps tried to defeat
Cappadocia, but failed. Lysimachus' old officer Philetairos ruled Pergamon
independently. On the other hand, based on their names, Seleucus apparently
founded a number of new cities in Asia Minor. Few of the letters Seleucus sent
to different cities and temples still exist. All cities in Asia Minor sent
embassies to their new ruler. It is reported that Seleucus complained about the
number of letters he received and was forced to read. He was apparently a
popular ruler. In Lemnos he was celebrated as a liberator and a temple was
built to honour him. According to a local custom, Seleucus was always offered
an extra cup of wine during dinner time. His title during this period was
Seleucus Soter ("saviour"). When Seleucus left for Europe, the
organizational rearrangement of Asia Minor had not been completed.
Death and legacy:
Seleucus now held the whole of Alexander's conquests except Egypt and moved to
take possession of Macedonia and Thrace. He intended to leave Asia to Antiochus
and content himself for the remainder of his days with the Macedonian kingdom
in its old limits. He had, however, hardly crossed into the Thracian Chersonese
when he was assassinated by Ptolemy Keraunos near Lysimachia in September (281)
It seems certain that after taking Macedonia and Thracia, Seleucus would have
tried to conquer Greece. He had already prepared this campaign using the
numerous gifts presented to him. He was also nominated an honorary citizen of
Athens. Antiochus founded the cult of his father. A cult of personality formed
around the later members of the Seleucid dynasty and Seleucus was later
worshipped as a son of Zeus Nikator. One inscription found in Ilion (i.e.,
Troy) advises priests to sacrifice to Apollo, the ancestor of Antiochus'
family. Several anecdotes of Seleucus' life became popular in the classical
world.
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