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Antigonus II Gonatas (320 – 239) was a
Macedonian ruler who solidified the position of the Antigonid dynasty in
Macedon after a long period defined by anarchy and chaos and acquired fame for
his victory over the Gauls who had invaded the Balkans.
Birth and family:
Antigonus Gonatas was born around 320 . The origin of the nickname Gonatus is
unknown. He was descended from the Diadochi (the successors of Alexander the
Great) on both his father's and mother's side. His father was Demetrius Poliorcetes, himself the son of
Antigonus I Monophthalmus, who then controlled
much of Asia. His mother was Phila, the daughter of Antipater, who had
controlled Macedonia and the rest of Greece since 334 and was recognized as
regent of the empire, which in theory remained united. In the year of Antigonus
Gonatas' birth, however, Antipater died, leading to further struggles for
territory and dominance. The careers of Antigonus's grandfather and father
showed great swings in fortune. After coming closer than anyone to reuniting
the empire of Alexander, Antigonus Monophthalmus was defeated and killed in the
great battle of Ipsus in 301 and the territory
he formerly controlled was divided among his enemies, Cassander, Ptolemy,
Lysimachus, and Seleucus.
Demetrius's general:
The fate of Antigonus Gonatas, now 18, was closely tied with that of his father
Demetrius, who escaped from the battle with 9,000 troops. Jealousy among the
victors eventually allowed Demetrius to regain part of the power his father had
lost. He conquered Athens and in 294 he seized the throne of Macedonia from
Alexander, the son of Cassander. Because Antigonus
Gonatas was the grandson of Antipater and the nephew of Cassander through his
mother, his presence helped to reconcile the supporters of these former kings
to the rule of his father. In 292, while Demetrius was campaigning in Boeotia,
he received news that
Lysimachus, the ruler of Thrace and the enemy of his father, had been taken
prisoner by Dromichaetes, a ruler of the Getae. Hoping to seize Lysimachus'
territories in Thrace and Asia, Demetrius delegated command of his forces in
Boeotia to Antigonus and immediately marched north. While he was away, the
Boeotians rose in rebellion, but were defeated by Antigonus, who bottled them
up in Thebes. After the failure of his expedition to Thrace, Demetrius rejoined
his son at the Siege of Thebes. As the Thebans defended their city stubbornly,
Demetrius often forced his men to attack the city at great cost, even though
there was little hope of capturing it. It is said that, distressed by the heavy
losses, Antigonus asked his father: "Why, father, do we allow these lives
to be thrown away so unnecessarily?" Demetrius appears to have showed his
contempt for the lives of his soldiers by replying: "We don't have to find
rations for the dead." But he also showed a similar disregard for his own
life and was badly wounded at the siege by a bolt through the neck. In 291 ,
Demetrius finally took the city after using siege engines to demolish its
walls. But control of Macedonia and most of Greece was merely a stepping stone
to his plans for further conquest. He aimed at nothing less than the revival of
Alexander's empire and started making preparations on a grand scale, ordering
the construction of a fleet of 500 ships, many of them of unprecedented size.
Such preparations and the obvious intent behind them, naturally alarmed the
other kings, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Pyrrhus, who immediately formed
an alliance.
In the spring of 288 Ptolemy's fleet appeared off Greece, inciting the cities
to revolt. At the same time, Lysimachus attacked Macedonia from the east while
Pyrrhus did so from the west. Demetrius left Antigonus in control of the rest
of Greece, while he hurried to Macedonia. By now the Macedonians had come to
resent the extravagance and arrogance of Demetrius, and were not prepared to
fight a difficult campaign for him. In 287, Pyrrhus took the Macedonian city of
Beroea and Demetrius's army promptly deserted and went over to the enemy who
was much admired by the Macedonians for his bravery. At this change of fortune,
Phila, the mother of Antigonus, killed herself with poison. Meanwhile, Athens
revolted. Demetrius therefore returned and besieged the city, but he soon grew
impatient and decided on a more dramatic course. Leaving Antigonus in charge of
the war in Greece, he assembled all his ships and embarked with 11,000 infantry
and all his cavalry to attack Caria and Lydia, provinces of Lysimachus.
As Demetrius was chased across Asia Minor to the Taurus Mountains by the armies
of Lysimachus and Seleucus, Antigonus attained success in Greece. Ptolemy's
fleet was driven off and Athens surrendered.
In the wilderness:
In 285 , Demetrius, worn down by his fruitless campaign, surrendered to
Seleucus. At this point, he wrote to his son and to his commanders in Athens
and Corinth telling them to henceforth consider him a dead man and to ignore
any letters they might receive written under his seal. Macedonia, meanwhile,
had been divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, but, "like two wolves
sharing a piece of meat", they soon fought over it with the result that
Lysimachus drove Pyrrhus out and took over the whole kingdom. Following the
capture of his father, Antigonus proved himself a dutiful son. He wrote to all
the kings, especially Seleucus, offering to surrender all the territory he
controlled and proposing himself as a hostage for his father's release, but to
no avail. In 283, at the age of 55, Demetrius died in captivity in Syria. When
Antigonus heard that his father's remains were being brought to him, he put to
sea with his entire fleet, met Seleucus's ships near the Cyclades, and took the
relics to Corinth with great ceremony. After this, the remains were interred at
the town of Demetrias that his father had founded in Thessaly.
In 282, Seleucus declared war on Lysimachus and the next year defeated and
killed him at the Battle of Corupedium in
Lydia. He then crossed to Europe to claim Thrace and Macedonia, but Ptolemy
Keraunos, the son of Ptolemy, murdered Seleucus and seized the Macedonian
throne. Antigonus decided the time was ripe to take back his father's kingdom,
but when he marched north, Ptolemy Keraunus defeated his army. Ptolemy's
success, however, was short-lived. In the winter of 279, a great horde of Gauls
under their leader Brennus
descended on Macedonia from the north, crushed Ptolemy's army and killed him in
battle, starting two years of complete anarchy in the kingdom. After plundering
Macedonia, the Gauls invaded further regions of Greece, moving southwards.
Antigonus cooperated in the defence of Greece against the barbarians, but the
Aetolians took the lead in defeating the Gauls. In 278 a Greek army with a
large Aetolian contingent checked the Gauls at Thermopylae and Delphi,
inflicting heavy casualties and forcing them to retreat. The next year (277),
Antigonus sailed to the Hellespont, landing near Lysimachia at the neck of the
Thracian Chersonese. When an army of Gauls under the command of Cerethrius
appeared, Antigonus laid an ambush. He abandoned his camp and beached his
ships, then concealed his men. The Gauls looted the camp, but when they started
to attack the ships, Antigonus's army appeared, trapping them with the sea to
their rear. In this way Antigonus resoundingly won the Battle of
Lysimachia and claimed the Macedonian
throne. Around this time, under these favourable omens, Antigonus's niece-wife
Phila gave birth to his son and successor, Demetrius II Aetolicus.
King of Macedonia:
Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, Macedonia's western neighbour, was a general of
mercurial ability, widely renowned for his bravery, but he did not apply his
talents sensibly and often snatched after vain hopes, so that Antigonus used to
compare him to a dice player, who had excellent throws, but did not know how to
use them. When the Gauls defeated Ptolemy Ceraunus and the Macedonian throne
became vacant, Pyrrhus was occupied in his campaigns overseas. Hoping to
conquer first Italy and then Africa, he got involved in wars against Rome and
Carthage, the two most powerful states in the western Mediterranean. He then
lost the support of the Greek cities in Italy and Sicily by his haughty
behaviour. Needing reinforcements, he wrote to Antigonus as a fellow Greek
king, asking him for troops and money, but Antigonus politely refused. In 275,
the Romans fought Pyrrhus at the Battle of Beneventum which ended
inconclusively, although many modern sources wrongly state that Pyrrhus lost
the battle. Pyrrhus had been drained by his recent wars in Sicily, and by the
earlier "Pyrrhic victories" over the Romans, and thus decided to end
his campaign in Italy and return to Epirus. Pyrrhus's retreat from Italy,
however, proved very unlucky for Antigonus. Returning to Epirus with an army of
eight thousand foot and five hundred horse, he was in need of money to pay
them. This encouraged him to look for another war, so the next year, after
adding a force of Gallic mercenaries to his army, he invaded Macedonia with the
intention of filling his coffers with plunder. The campaign, however, went
better than expected. Making himself master of several towns and being joined
by two thousand deserters, his hopes started to grow and he went in search of
Antigonus, attacking his army in a narrow pass and throwing it into disorder at
the Battle of the Aous River. Antigonus's Macedonian troops retreated, but his
own body of Gallic mercenaries, who had charge of his elephants, stood firm
until Pyrrhus's troops surrounded them, whereupon they surrendered both
themselves and the elephants. Pyrrhus now chased after the rest of Antigonus's
army which, demoralised by its earlier defeat, declined to fight. As the two
armies faced each other, Pyrrhus called out to the various officers by name and
persuaded the whole body of infantry to desert. Antigonus escaped by concealing
his identity. Pyrrhus now took control of upper Macedonia and Thessaly, while
Antigonus held on to the coastal towns.
But Pyrrhus now wasted his victory. Taking possession of Aegae, the ancient
capital of Macedonia, he installed a garrison of Gauls, who greatly offended
the Macedonians by digging up the tombs of their kings and leaving the bones
scattered about as they searched for gold. He also neglected to finish off his
enemy. Leaving him in control of the coastal cities, he contented himself with
insults. He called Antigonus a shameless man for still wearing the purple, but
he did little to destroy the remnants of his power. Before this campaign was
finished, Pyrrhus had embarked upon a new one. In 272, Cleonymus, an important
Spartan, invited him to invade Laconia. Gathering an army of twenty-five
thousand foot, two thousand horse, and twenty-four elephants, he crossed over
to the Peloponnese and occupied Megalopolis in Arcadia. Antigonus, after
reoccupying part of Macedonia, gathered what forces he could and sailed to
Greece to oppose him. As a large part of the Spartan army led by king Areus was
in Crete at the time, Pyrrhus besieged Sparta with great hopes of taking the
city easily, but the citizens organized stout resistance, allowing one of
Antigonus's commanders, Aminias the Phocian, to reach the city with a force of
mercenaries from Corinth. Soon after this, the Spartan king, Areus, returned
from Crete with 2,000 men. These reinforcements stiffened resistance, and
Pyrrhus, finding that he was losing men to desertion every day, broke off the
attack and started to plunder the country.
The most important Peloponnesian city after Sparta was Argos. The two chief
men, Aristippus and Aristeas, were keen rivals. As Aristippus was an ally of
Antigonus, Aristeas invited Pyrrhus to come to Argos to help him take over the
city. Antigonus, aware that Pyrrhus was advancing on Argos, marched his army
there as well, taking up a strong position on some high ground near the city.
When Pyrrhus learned this, he encamped about Nauplia and the next day
dispatched a herald to Antigonus, calling him a coward and challenging him to
come down and fight on the plain. Antigonus replied that he would choose his
own moment to fight and that if Pyrrhus was weary of life, he could find many
ways to die. The Argives, fearing that their territory would become a war zone,
sent deputations to the two kings begging them to go elsewhere and allow their
city to remain neutral. Both kings agreed, but Antigonus won over the trust of
the Argives by surrendering his son as a hostage for his pledge. Pyrrhus, who
had recently lost a son in the retreat from Sparta, did not. Indeed, with the
help of Aristeas, he was plotting to seize the city. In the middle of the
night, he marched his army up to the city walls and entered through a gate that
Aristeas had opened. His Gallic troops seized the market place, but he had
difficulty getting his elephants into the city through the small gates. This
gave the Argives time to rally. They occupied strong points and sent messengers
asking Antigonus for help. When Antigonus heard that Pyrrhus had treacherously
attacked the city, he advanced to the walls and sent a strong force inside to
help the Argives. At the same time Areus arrived with a force of 1,000 Cretans
and light-armed Spartans. These forces attacked the Gauls in the market place.
Pyrrhus, realising that his Gallic troops were hard pressed, now advanced into
the city with more troops, but in the narrow streets this soon led to confusion
as men got lost and wandered around. The two forces now paused and waited for
daylight. When the sun rose, Pyrrhus saw how strong the opposition was and
decided the best thing was to retreat. Fearing that the gates would be too
narrow for his troops to easily exit the city, he sent a message to his son,
Helenus, who was outside with the main body of the army, asking him to break
down a section of the walls. The messenger, however, failed to convey his
instructions clearly. Misunderstanding what was required, Helenus took the rest
of the elephants and some picked troops and advanced into the city to help his
father. With some of his troops trying to get out of the city and others trying
to get in, Pyrrhus's army was now thrown into confusion. This was made worse by
the elephants. The largest one had fallen across the gateway and was blocking
the way, while another elephant, called Nicon, was trying to find its rider.
This beast surged against the tide of fugitives, crushing friend and foe alike,
until it found its dead master, whereupon it picked him up, placed him on its
tusks, and went on the rampage. In this chaos Pyrrhus was struck down by a tile
thrown by an old woman and killed by Zopyrus, a soldier of Antigonus.
Alcyoneus, one of Antigonus's sons, heard that Pyrrhus had been killed. Taking
the head, which had been cut off by Zopyrus, he rode to where his father was
and threw it at his feet. Far from being delighted, Antigonus was angry with
his son and struck him, calling him a barbarian and drove him away. He then
covered his face with his cloak and burst into tears. The fate of Pyrrhus
reminded him all too clearly of the tragic fates of his own grandfather and his
father who had suffered similar swings of fortune. He then had Pyrrhus's body
cremated with great ceremony. After the death of Pyrrhus, his whole army and
camp surrendered to Antigonus, greatly increasing his power. Later, Alcyoneus
discovered Helenus, Pyrrhus's son, disguised in threadbare clothes. He treated
him kindly and brought him to his father who was more pleased with his
behaviour. "This is better than what you did before, my son," he
said, "but why leave him in these clothes which are a disgrace to us now
that we know ourselves the victors?" Greeting him courteously, Antigonus
treated Helenus as an honoured guest and sent him back to Epirus.
This was not the end of Antigonus' problems with Epirus: shortly after
Alexander II, the son of Pyrrhus and his successor as king of Epirus, repeated
his father's adventure by conquering Macedonia. However, only a few years
later, Alexander was not only expelled from Macedonia by Antigonus' son
Demetrius, but he also lost Epirus and had to go into exile in Acarnania. His
exile didn't last long, as the Macedonians had to abandon Epirus eventually
under pressure from Alexander's allies, the Acarnanians and the Aetolians.
Alexander seems to have died about 242 , leaving his country under the regency
of his wife Olympias who proved anxious to have good relations with Epirus'
powerful neighbour, as was sanctioned by the marriage between the regent's
daughter Phthia and Antigonus' son and heir Demetrius.
Chremonidean War:
With the restoration of the territories captured by Pyrrhus, and with grateful
allies in Sparta and Argos, and garrisons in Corinth and other cities,
Antigonus securely controlled Macedonia and Greece. The careful way he guarded
his power shows that he wished to avoid the vicissitudes of fortune that had
characterized the careers of his father and grandfather. Aware that the Greeks
loved freedom and autonomy, he was careful to grant a semblance of this in as
much as it did not clash with his own power. Also, he tried to avoid the odium
that direct rule brings by controlling the Greeks through intermediaries. It is
for this reason that Polybius says, "No man ever set up more absolute
rulers in Greece than Antigonus."
The tyrants installed or maintained by Gonatas include: Cleon (Sicyon, c.
300–280 ), Euthydemus and Timocleidas (Sicyon c. 280–270 ), Iseas
(Keryneia, resigned 275 ), Aristotimus (Elis, assassinated 272 ), Aristippus
the Elder (Argos, from 272 ), Abantidas (Sicyon, 264–252 ), Aristodemus
the Good (Megalopolis, assassinated 252 ), Paseas (Sicyon, 252–251 ),
Nicocles (Sicyon, 251 ), Aristomachus (Argos, assassinated 240 ), Lydiadas,
(Megalopolis, c. 245–235 ), and Aristippus (Argos, 240–235 ).
The next stage of Antigonus's career is not documented and what we know has
been patched together from a few historical fragments: Antigonus seems to have
been on very good terms with Antiochus, the Seleucid ruler of Asia, whose love
for Stratonice, the sister of Antigonus, is very famous. Such an alliance
naturally threatened the third successor state, Ptolemaic Egypt. In Greece,
Athens and Sparta, once the dominant states, naturally resented the domination
of Antigonus. The pride, which in the past had made these cities mortal
enemies, now served to unite them. In 267 , probably with encouragement from
Egypt, an Athenian by the name of Chremonides persuaded the Athenians to join
the Spartans in declaring war on Antigonus (see Chremonidean War).
The Macedonian king responded by ravaging the territory of Athens with an army
while blockading them by sea. In this campaign he also destroyed the grove and
temple of Poseidon that stood at the entrance to Attica near the border with
Megara. To support the Athenians and prevent the power of Antigonus from
growing too much, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the king of Egypt, sent a fleet to
break the blockade. The Egyptian admiral, Patroclus, landed on a small
uninhabited island near Laurium and fortified it as a base for naval
operations. The Seleucid Empire had signed a peace treaty with Egypt, but
Antiochus's son-in-law, Magas, king of Cyrene, persuaded Antiochus to take
advantage of the war in Greece to attack Egypt. To counter this, Ptolemy
dispatched a force of pirates and freebooters to raid and attack the lands and
provinces of Antiochus, while his army fought a defensive campaign, holding
back the stronger Seleucid army. Although successfully defending Egypt, Ptolemy
II was unable to save Athens from Antigonus.
In 263/2 or 262/1 , the Athenians and Spartans, worn down by several years of
war and the devastation of their lands, made peace with Antigonus, who thus
retained his hold on Greece. Ptolemy II continued to interfere in the affairs
of Greece and this led to war in 261. After two years in which little changed,
Antiochus II Theos, the new Seleucid king, made a military agreement with
Antigonus, and the Second Syrian War began.
Secnd Syrian War:
Under the combined attack, Egypt lost ground in Anatolia and Phoenicia, and the
city of Miletus, held by its ally, Timarchus, was seized by Antiochus II. In
255 , Ptolemy made peace, ceding lands to the Seleucids and confirming
Antigonus in his mastery of Greece. Two years later, however, the Egyptian
interfered again, inducing with his subsidies the Macedonian governor of
Corinth and Euboea, Alexander, son of Craterus, to challenge his king, seeking
independence as a tyrant. Alexander's revolt was the most serious threat to the
Macedonian hegemony in Greece, and since Antigonus' military efforts were
unsuccessful, he probably resolved to poison the traitor in 247. By offering a
marriage with his heir Demetrius II Aetolicus Antigonus took in his widow
Nicaea and regained control of Corinth in the winter of 245/44 .
Antigonus against Aratus:
Having successfully repelled the external threat to his control of Greece, the
main danger to the power of Antigonus lay in the Greek love of liberty. In 251,
Aratus, a young nobleman in the city of Sicyon, expelled the tyrant Nicocles,
who had ruled with the acquiescence of Antigonus, freed the people, and
recalled the exiles. This led to confusion and division within the city.
Fearing that Antigonus would exploit these divisions to attack the city, Aratus
applied for the city to join the Achaean League, a league of a few small
Achaean towns in the Peloponnese. Preferring to use guile rather than military
power, Antigonus sought to regain control over Sicyon through winning the young
man over to his side. Accordingly, he sent him a gift of 25 talents, but,
Aratus, instead of being corrupted by this wealth, immediately gave it away to
his fellow citizens. With this money and another sum he received from Ptolemy
II Philadelphus, he was able to reconcile the different parties in Sicyon and
unite the city. Antigonus was troubled by the rising power and popularity of
Aratus. If he were to receive extensive military and financial support from
Ptolemy, Aratus would be able to threaten his position. He decided therefore to
either win him over to his side or at least discredit him with Ptolemy. In
order to do this, he showed him great marks of favour. When he was sacrificing
to the gods in Corinth, he sent portions of the meat to Aratus at Sicyon, and
complimented Aratus in front of his guests: "I thought this Sicyonian
youth was only a lover of liberty and of his fellow-citizens, but now I look
upon him as a good judge of the manners and actions of kings. For formerly he
despised us, and, placing his hopes further off, admired the Egyptians, hearing
much of their elephants, fleets, and palaces. But after seeing all these at a
nearer distance, and perceiving them to be but mere stage props and pageantry,
he has now come over to us. And for my part I willingly receive him, and,
resolving to make great use of him myself, command you to look upon him as a
friend." These words were readily believed by many, and when they were
reported to Ptolemy, he half believed them.
But Aratus was far from becoming a friend of Antigonus, whom he regarded as the
oppressor of his city's freedom. In 243, in an attack by night, he seized the
Acrocorinth, the strategically important fort by which Antigonus controlled the
Isthmus of Corinth and thus the Peloponnese. When news of this success reached
Corinth, the Corinthians rose in rebellion, overthrew Antigonus' party, and
joined the Achaean League. Next Aratus took the port of Lechaeum and captured
25 of Antigonus's ships. This setback for Antigonus sparked a general uprising
against Macedonian power. The Megarians revolted and together with the
Troezenians and Epidaurians enrolled in the Achaean League. With this increased
strength, Aratus invaded the territory of Athens and plundered Salamis. Every
Athenian freeman he captured was sent back to the Athenians without ransom to
encourage them to join the rebellion. The Macedonians, however, retained their
hold on Athens and the rest of Greece.
Relationship with philosophers:
Antigonus surrounded himself at court with a circle of notable intellectuals
and philosophers. He was mentioned several times by Diogenes Laertius in The
Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers, in relation to various
philosophers, particularly those linked with the Megarian, Pyrrhonist, Cynic,
and Stoic schools. We're told that "many persons courted Antigonus and
went to meet him whenever he came to Athens" and that after an unnamed sea
battle, many Athenians went to see Antigonus or wrote him flattering letters.
Many of the philosophers linked with Antigonus were associated with the
Megarian school. Euphantus, a philosopher of the Megarian school, taught King
Antigonus "and dedicated to him a work On Kingship which was very
popular". We're also told that Antigonus consulted Menedemus of Eretria, a
distinguished member of Phaedo's school of philosophy, about whether to attend
a drinking party. Antigonus also knew the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of
Phlius. Menedemus and Timon had both previously studied with the Megarian
school. When the eclectic philosopher Bion of Borysthenes, who was best known
as resembling the Cynics, fell ill, Antigonus sent two servants to act as
nurses to him, and Antigonus himself reputedly later visited him. Ultimately,
though, Antigonus became most associated with the Stoics. Zeno of Citium
studied under both the Megarians and Cynics before founding the Stoic school
and he became particularly associated with Antigonus. We're told
"Antigonus (Gonatas) also favoured him [Zeno], and whenever he came to
Athens would hear him lecture and often invited him to come to his
court.". Diogenes Laertius reproduces a brief series of letters between
Zeno and Antigonus, in which he asked the Stoic to attend his court and help
guide him in virtue, for the benefit of the Macedonian people. Zeno at this
time was too sickly and frail to travel so instead he sent two of his best
students Persaeus and Philonides the Theban, who subsequently lived with
Antigonus. While Persaeus was at Antigonus' court, Antigonus once, wishing to
make trial of him, caused some false news to be brought to him that his estate
had been ravaged by the enemy, and as his countenance fell, "Do you
see," said he, "that wealth is not a matter of indifference?"
Persaeus subsequently became an important figure at the Macedonian court. After
Antigonus captured Corinth around 244, he put Persaeus in control of the city
as Archon. Persaeus died in 243 defending the city against the attack led by
Aratus of Sicyon. After Zeno's death, Antigonus reputedly exclaimed "What
an audience I have lost!". Antigonus subsequently made a gift of three
thousand drachmas to Cleanthes, Zeno's successor as head of the Stoa, whose
lectures he also attended. The poet Aratus, who had also studied Stoicism under
Zeno, lived at the court of Antigonus.
Relations with India:
Antigonus is mentioned in the Edicts of Ashoka as one of the recipients of the
Indian Emperor Ashoka's Buddhist proselytism.[12]
Death and appraisal:
In 239 , Antigonus died at the age of 80 and left his kingdom to his son
Demetrius II, who was to reign for the next 10 years. Except for a short period
when he defeated the Gauls, Antigonus was not a heroic or successful military
leader. His skills were mainly political. He preferred to rely on cunning,
patience, and persistence to achieve his goals. While more brilliant leaders,
like his father Demetrius and his neighbour Pyrrhus, aimed higher and fell
lower, Antigonus achieved a measure of security. It is also said of him that he
gained the affection of his subjects by his honesty and his cultivation of the
arts, which he accomplished by gathering round him distinguished literary men,
in particular philosophers, poets, and historians. A tomb in Vergina is
suggested to be his own.
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