The Actions in Poland and Saxony

The main forces of Charles XII, as was said, were concentrated in Poland, where the Swedes carried out a rigid policy and were not going to consider the national traditions. All Polish centers were occupied by Swedish troops. Charles set up as a claimant to the Polish throne, the nobleman Stanislav Leczezynsky, as a rival to Augustus. But supporters of the overthrown king had formed the Sandomirsky confederation, which had declared war against the Swedes. After Narva and the defeat of the Danes, Peter and Augustus were alert, but in spite of this they declined to come to terms with Charles. However, at last they were confirmed to continue the war.

In March 1701 Field-Marshal Steinau set off from Warsaw to take command of the Saxon army in Livonia. Charles' army had taken up a very suitable position from which the Swedish king began his impetuous march southward and at the beginning of July he stood under the walls of Riga. The Saxon army, which was concentrated on the opposite side of the West Dvina River, consisted of 10,000 Saxons and 19,000 Russians. The Swedish regiments embarked and began crossing the river on board flat bottom prams. In front of them they placed boats filled with straw, which they set on fire. The wind blew into the faces of the Saxons and Russians and gave forth volumes of smoke. The artillery of the allies began to fire, but the Swedish detachments succeeded to land and attack the enemy's position. The first Swedish line, formed by the grenadiers of the guard, with Charles himself at their head occupied the position on the Dvina's bank. In their turn the Saxons attempted to return to their entrenchments but the fierce charges of the Swedish horse guard forced them to fall back, whereupon the Russian troops fled without striking a blow. The Swedes had lost about 500 killed and the Saxons more than 2,000 killed and wounded. After this victory, all the territory of Livonia was recaptured by Charles.

From the middle of September to the end of December 1701 he remained at Wurgen exercising his troops and negotiating with the Polish magnates. Charles supported C. Sapieha in his struggle against Oginski. Otherwise his army was described at that time as 16,000 half naked ragamuffins without artillery but unmatched for endurance and martial prowess. In spite of the absolute shortage of rafts the Swedes were able arrive at Warsaw in May. Having few troops, Charles broke up from Warsaw and moved to seek Augustus. His generals remonstrated with him to join the Pomeranian contingent (16,000) or at least Mormer's division (5,000). At the beginning of July the Saxon army (19,000) quit Cracow and started towards Klissov, where Augustus bade to fix a camp. Five days later Charles within a mile of the enemy's camp and without waiting for the arrival of Mormer's division and not postponing the battle set off seeking Saxons. After a six-mile march, they came within sight of the Saxon position. Their right wing was protected by a long reach of morass and behind the camp there was a deep bay, in front stood the artillery. Taking into account the entire advantage of this position Charles decided to turn to the left to deprive the enemy of this suitable terrain. He disposed his main force at a location that was free from swamp. At 2 o'clock in the afternoon of 9 July Charles gave the signal to advance. In its turn excellently mounted Polish cavalry charged the Swedes but was repulsed by the Swedish infantry, part of which was armed with long pikes.

After this action, the Swedes attacked the Saxon right wing. During this attack, General Fleming was twice wounded and his horse was killed. Meanwhile the Saxons surprised the right flank of the Swedes and their rear. A furious onslaught occurred, but the Swedish general Rehnskjold bade the horse guard and life guard to support the wavering dragoons. This charge was crushing but simultaneously the next attack of the Saxons in the center hardly compelled the weakened Swedish infantry to turn back. Charles bade his cavalry to assist these exhausted regiments and by half past four the battle was over with victory going to Charles. The Swedes lost 2,000 men and the enemy casualties were about 3,300.

Soon the Swedish army was near Cracow. Charles and Stenbock, being at the head of only 300 men, marched to the gate. Stenbock invited the commandant to come out. They succeeded to hoodwink him and rushed at the gate. Stenbock was appointed governor and commandant of Cracow.

After several months resting at Warsaw and Cracow, in January 1704 Charles went into winter quarters round Lublin. During the winter he was occupied with reinforcing and sometimes despatching his regiments to fight with partisans. In spring 1704 he assumed the offensive and poured upon the Saxon troops at Pultusk. Postponing the final route he changed the direction of his movement and turned off towards Thorn, which was considered to be a strong fortress with a garrison of about 6,000. But after this action the Swedish army remained immovable for the next 8 months. Only in September with a real bombardment and after the garrison was reduced by 2/3 the fortress capitulated. Meanwhile in Poland the situation had been rapidly leading up to a crisis. Augustus succeeded partly to amend his position and achieve temporary stabilization. But however his attempts to negotiate with the opposition confederation was in vain. The position seemed to take a turn for the better owing to the treaty with Russia signed in October 1703.

Charles issued a proclamation in which he declared that he took the confederates under his protection. Both belligerents were preparing for the new round of war. It began with Charles's capturing Lemberg in August 1704, but the Polish king at the same time succeeded to recapture Warsaw. After falling on the Saxon army, Charles routed the troops of Gen. Shulenburg and forced him to retreat into Silesia. After pursuing, the Swedish king pitched his camp at Rawitz, where he remained 8 months, settling his domestic affairs and attempting to firm up the establishment of Lechinsky. Meanwhile a Russian-Saxon army led by Paikull (10,000) was defeated by the Swedes near Warsaw. Levenhaupt advised Charles to pursue Sheremetev, who successfully acted in the Baltic provinces and crushed him, but Charles decided not to do anything till the new king of Poland had been crowed. This ceremony took place in September 24, 1705.

The Russian corps led by Golitsyn was sent to assist Augustus, who succeeded to avoid a pitched battle with Charles. But nevertheless the Polish nobles disliked any idea of cooperation with Peter. They wished to be neutral in this struggle as far as possible and to support neither Charles nor Peter. And Charles himself was doomed to fight with complexities of the Polish situation. In August 1704 Russian-Saxon troops captured Warsaw, but the Swedes undertook the march towards Lvov. It was a strongly fortified fortress with a well trained garrison and sufficiently supplied with provision and ammunition. A few attacks of Swedish forces were repulsed, but a decisive storm, arranged by Charles himself brought about capitulation. After that Ukraine cossacks and Polish units attempted to attack the Swedish regiments encamped near Lvov and damaged them. From Lvov Charles sent out towards Warsaw and only by his impetuous march forced the Saxons to withdraw to Cracow and then Dresden. The Russian main forces were assembled at Polock, from which Peter could control the Swedish maneuvers and movement both on the Baltic and Warsaw directions. Later he removed his regiments to Grodno where the Saxons had been assigned. By winter the Saxon troops and Russian dragoons, 4 regiments, had abandoned Grodno's camp and turned towards Warsaw again. Charles decided to take advantage of this situation, and bade to march to Grodno. Having performed this action, the Swedish army emerged near Grodno and surprised his foe. The Saxon forces of General Shulenburg were transported to assist the Russian troops. In February 1706 a Swedish corps under the command of Gen. Rejshild defeated Saxon and Russian units at Frausstadt. This gave an opportunity to the Swedes to act against Grodno without any obstacles. After reconnaissance, Charles was convinced his regiments were too weak to storm and capture the Russian camp and he ordered the army to encamp and entrench near Grodno. The situation for Peter was deteriorating. All access to Grodno was cut off and the reality of Russian surrender appeared immanent.

Only in March Menshikov and Ogilvy succeeded to tear themselves away. They took advantage of the floating ice on the Neman River and crossed it and rushed towards Brest and Kiev. Peter feared the Swedish invasion and redoubled his attempts to fortify Pskov, Novgorod, and Veliki Luki. But Charles did not hurry and only in April crossed the Neman and started pursuit. But his efforts to overtake the Russians were in vain. Then he changed his plan and began an impetuous movement to Dresden. By this action he had enforced Augustus' withdrawal and surrender. The Polish king was compelled to sign the Treaty of Altranstadt. Augustus had to abandon the throne and recognize Lecinsky as king. The Russians located in Poland had no information of this treachery and were marching to assist the Saxons. Their cavalry and Russian units led by Menshikov faced with Swedes of Gen. Mardefeld near Kalish in October 1706. The cavalry of Menshikov charged the Polish infantry regiments placed on the flanks of Mardefeld's position and dispersed them. In its turn the Swedish infantry attacked the Russian and Saxon lines and forced them to retreat. The Saxon cavalry was turned back by fire of artillery and infantry. At the same time the Swedish squadrons during their chase faced with the second line of the Russian dragoons formation and was damaged. Menshikov at the head of Russian-Saxon cavalry units attempted to break through the Swedish position in the center and for this aim he hurled all his cavalry but in spite of its massive charges the Swedish infantry continued to resist. At last the allies succeeded to throw down Swedish units from their position and to rout them. Mardefeld himself and a thousand of his soldiers were captured. Three cannons and 85 banners fell into the hands of the Russians. However, the significance of this victory was canceled by the Altranstadt treaty. The Russia had not strong support in Poland because most of the Polish nobles were on Lescynski's side. Peter's efforts to conclude a truce with Charles had been a failure because the Swedish king demanded a full capitulation expressing his willingness to begin incursions into Russia. Having faced the menacing threat of Swedish invasion, Peter and his commanders composed a plan of gradual retreat at a council that took place in Golkva, near Lvov. The main task was to avoid a pitched battle and wear down the foe.

War in Russia

In 1707 both sides made necessary preparations for further struggle. Charles rested his army in Saxony while his regiments were reinforced by recruits. Peter, in his turn, attempted to fortify the frontier towns and increase the garrison's strength. At last Charles abandoned the comfortable villages and places of Saxony and started to the east. Meanwhile, he was not going to leave the Baltic shores in the Peter's hands. But, having crossed the Vistula, he turned towards Grodno. Peter rapidly retreated from Warsaw and would have entrenched at Grodno, but the Swedes' unsurpassable swiftness anticipated him, snatched Grodno, and, after a short rest near Vilna, set off towards Minsk. Charles decided to end the war at one blow and prepared to strike at the very heart of Russia. He underestimated the danger of cutting off his own communications and the risk of destruction in a vast wilderness. In the beginning of June the Swedes broke up from Radoskowice and turned off to the south-east. Peter had assembled a numerous army (70,000 men) and had been watching this maneuver all this time. He tried to protect the Moscow direction and took preventive measures fortifying the line from Mogilev to Orsha. The units of Gen. Golts were sent to stem the passage of the Swedish army at the Berezina, but Charles succeeded in crossing this river. He undertook to march towards the Dnieper, and, during this action his regiments, were being attacked constantly by partisans and patrols of cossacks. Beside this, the bad roads and territories devastated by natives hampered their movement. At last Charles' exhausted troops reached the little town, Golowcsyn, where a battle took place.

The Russian position, which strongly held the river bank, seemed almost impregnable. Between their line and river there was a morass and behind it stood a forest. The Russians outnumbered the Swedes by several times and had the advantage in artillery. Their flanks were under command of Repnin and Sheremetev. Charles tried to detect the vulnerable point in this position. He determined that there was an unguarded gap between the Russian left and right wings. Namely against this point he hurled all his forces. On July 14th the battle began with a general cannonade and the Swedish infantry through the morass attacked the Russian line. Repnin feared to be cut off from Sheremetev and fell back on the wood behind him. His cavalry advanced to assist the infantry charged by, but a squadron of dragoon chased him as soon as they dashed across the stream. The Russian cavalry was turned back. At the same time Charles ordered a general advance to begin. The Russian left wing was forced to abandon its artillery and camp and fall back. The Russian commander had not time to assist their left and practically did not take part in the struggle. Nevertheless it devolved into a general retreat. Charles ordered a pursuit of the dispersed Russian units. Swedish casualties were about 1,500, Russian more then 3,000 men. This victory did not achieve a decisive result, but it opened up the way to the Dnieper. Peter's army was not routed and the Russian soldiers were very different from the men who had run away at Narva. Had the Swedes been able to advance instantly they might have gained great advantage but they were too exhausted. Charles turned aside to Mogilev, where he rested until August. Meanwhile, Russian troops were concentrated east from there. At the beginning of August the Swedes continued their onward march and Charles still hoped to rout Russian forces in one battle. But Peter continued to withdrawal step by step destroying and burning everything on their path. He would not yet risk a decisive engagement, but several pitched battles were unavoidable. One of them took place at Czerikow, where the Russian units mainly attempted to stem the Swedish crossing of the river Socz. Later there was a sharp combat at Malatitze when Russians handily succeeded in cutting off one Swedish division. Charles continued his advance striving to overtake Peter, but the Russians successfully avoided a possible crushing. Tatars and Bashkirs constantly hovered round the advancing host and harassed it. The Swedish army suffered greatly from starvation and there were not prospects of getting bread and provender any more. As Charles admitted, he had not any plan of further movement. At last he had chosen a south easterly direction towards Ukraine, where he hoped to rest and strengthen his forces. Besides that he planned to rely upon cossacks' help and to find a serviceable ally in Mazeppa. It was a blunder, but Peter forced him to deviate from the route to Moscow.

Ivan Mazeppa was the illegitimate son of a Polish nobleman. In youth he served as a page at the court of King Jan Casimir, but being suspected in adultery with the wife of a Polish magnate, he was in disgrace banished upon the steppes of the Ukraine. Here he was rescued from the carrion crows by the cossacks who adopted the lad. He grew up among them and in 1687 they elected him their Hetmann. In this position he had demonstrated the wishes and capacity to clear the land of the Tatars bands and to render service to Peter. But it was the secret ambition of Mazeppa to become independent of both Poland and Russia and the success of Charles seemed to present him with the long sought for opportunity. When Charles was in Poland, Mazeppa began secretly negotiations with the Swedes. For the cossack Hetmann although bound by all the ties honor and gratitude to Peter had been disturbed by Peter's far reaching military reforms, which seemed to him to be undermining the independence of the cossacks and he was quite prepared to shake off the Muscovite yoke if only he had a powerful friend. Mazeppa determined Charles was such friend.
Mazeppa was inspired by hope to create an independent Ukraine with the help of the Swedes. But only in November the Hetmann threw off the mask and joined Charles XII.

For long he had vacillated trying to serve in both camps, but, considering the position of Peter to be disastrously wrong, he decided to abandon him. Yet at the end of May Charles ordered Gen. Lewenhaupt to abandon his position near Riga and march to the Dnieper as soon as possible. But the cumbersome train numbering more then 10 thousand vehicles hampered his possible speed. By the end of June Lewenhaupt was ready and set out with 11,000 men and provision reserve sufficient to feed the main army for 2-3 months. The bad roads and heavy rains made his march rather slow. At last by the middle of September he had reached the Dnieper at Sklow. From there he started towards Starodub, hoping to join Charles but the latter was marching already in another direction. Levenhaupt was thunderstruck. He was separated from the main forces. Peter decided to take advantage of this situation. He had assembled KORVOLAN- mounted corps - under the command of Menshikov and bade it surround and rout the Swedes. Levenhaupt had crossed the Dnieper but faced with the Russian vanguard and was forced to withdraw to Sosh. But Russians threw themselves in his way with 30,000 men. The battle broke out near the village of Lesnaya. The Swedish infantry repulsed many charges of cavalry of Menshikov but Russians received large reinforcements and their units entered the fight. At last the Swedes was forced to begin to retreat. The Russian cavalry threw itself into the chase. Lewenhaupt succeeded to burn the part of his stores and munitions but the rest was captured by cavalrymen of Menshikov. It was the first victory on a significant scale won by the Russians over Swedes. Not without reason Peter called this battle "The mother of Poltava". Meanwhile Charles continued his march through Ukraine but food and other provisions became scarcer and scarcer. In October at last Levenhaupt joined the main forces with 7,000 men but his great train was completely lost. Moreover Mazeppa effected his junction only with 1,800-2,000 cossacks instead of the 30,000 he had promised. His hoodwinking of Peter had come to light. Mazeppa's capital, Baturin, was reduced to ashes by Menshikov, the commander of the garrison was broken on the wheel and many of the civilian inhabitants massacred.

However there was another danger for Peter in Ukraine. The Hetmann of Zaporozians of the lower Dnieper, Hordienko, destroyed in his territory all Russian forts and Russian and Ukrainian landlords were banished. Peter decided to strike a decisive blow at the Sech capital of residence of Hordienko. Dragoons of Menshikov seized and destroyed it .

This card of the Swedes was beaten. They themselves tried to end the war as soon as possible by any methods, but persistence of Charles forced them to fight. In November Charles reached the river Desna on opposite steep bank of which Russian troops were placed. After a severe skirmishing they withdrew and the Swedes pitched camp near Romny a little place to the south of Baturin. Charles issued a manifesto to cossacks in which he warned them against Peter's treachery and offered to take them under his protection. Peter in his turn even before the Swedes had appealed to cossacks promising large scale rewards for every Swedish captive. His order made an impression on the cossacks and they reinforced the Russian army. After a few months rest, Charles began active actions and in January Swedish troops captured a little fortress at Neprik, which surrendered only after persistent resistance. Also, Russian units were defeated in two engagements at Opozcnaja and Krasnokutsk. The spring floods put an end to the Swedish offensive and while Charles was encamping at Budiszcze Peter was assembling and reinforcing his units and simultaneously inspecting Black sea fleet. The situation of the Swedish army was rather alarming. Its strength had dwindled down at least from 41,000 to almost 20,000 of whom 18,000 were able bodied. The army was short of forage, provisions, and ammunition. All the communications with central Europe had been cut off. The nearest Swedish army of Krassau was 900 miles away. Swedish officers persuaded Charles to return to Poland. But he felt victory was still possible, and he intended to find a serviceable ally. But day by day the situation of the Swedes grew more distressing. The summer heat was oppressive and caused most of the wounded to die of gangrene.

Powder had so deteriorated from wetting as to be almost useless. There were not sufficient bullets and privates and officers had to collect and use the balls of the enemy. In spite of this the Swedish forces in April -May 1709 laid siege to the fortified town of Poltava. Charles did all in his power to encourage his soldiers. He himself issued the sappers and miners the necessary instructions and orders. The situation of the Russian garrison, led by Colonel Kelin and the inhabitants who took an active part in defense grew more desperate. The narrow districts occupied by the Swedes were soon drained of food. Peter tried to avoid a general engagement. He ordered the troops to strongly entrench his camp and began to construct a line of small field batteries reaching the Swedish camp. The Russian artillery outnumbered many times over the Swedish and the total strength of Peter's forces was much greater than Charles' army

But the Swedes were still confident in their qualitative superiority to attack. They underestimated the capacities of Peter and his warriors. Meanwhile Charles with his commanders composed the plan which proposed to attack Russians in their camp. On 27 June 1709 after midnight Gen. Rehnshold gave the order to advance to the enemy's lines and batteries. On the left wing of the Swedes were placed the regiments of Rehnshold and squadrons of Creutz. The center formation of Charles' forces consisted of the infantry of Gen. Levenhaupt. The cavalry of Shlippenbach acted on the right flank. The Russian formation was rather complex and comprised both camp and field entrenchments. There were several lines of infantry and batteries of field artillery . The flanks were protected by Sheremetev and Repnin. The main cavalry units were under Menshikov's command.

Generals Sparre and Ross by their attacks attempted to clear the way to the center. And they succeeded to break through the two lines of Russian batteries. Sparre captured the field batteries on the left. In case Ross would captured the batteries on the right, the guns could have been turned against the Russian position. Meanwhile the main Russian regiments were in the camp and Peter was awaiting a suitable moment to use their power.

Swedes undertook massive cavalry charges and units of Gen. Creutz threw themselves to Russian infantry hoping to assist Sparre. As a result, the regiments of Ross were left entirely unsupported. This was a blunder which was realized well by Peter who ordered at once Menshikov with 10,000 to cut off Ross. He succeeded to disperse masses of the Swedish infantry and the danger to the rear of Charles' army became rather formidable. Peter chose this propitious moment to strike a crushing blow. He hurled his selected forces against the main Swedish forces. The lines of the Swedish infantry were broken and panic began, and they retreated in confusion. This reverse was fatal not only for the Swedish infantry. Their squadrons were routed by dragoons of Menshikov and Drabants of Peter himself. Somewhere the battle was transformed into the butchering. The Swedes were decisively defeated. Two days later Menshikov's squadrons overtook the rest of Swedish army near Perevolochnaya on the left bank of the Dnieper. The Swedish units capitulated and Charles with Mazeppa and Hordienko escaped across the river and took refuge in Ottoman territory at Bendery in Moldavia. The Russian casualties were 2,000 and the Swedes lost more then 4,000. This victory set the real outcome of the war. It gained ascendancy for Russia over the international situation. After that Russia was considered as powerful state which was able to protect its interests and reach any aims using various methods including war. The Poltava victory was celebrated in Moscow and other towns by a great triumph. The rows of captured Swedes marched through the streets of Russian capital. There was arranged spectacular firework display and commemorative medal was ordered. From this time the theater of the active military actions was removed from the Ukraine into the Baltic.

The actions in the Baltic

Peter planned to complete the war in the Baltic and his first task was capturing Riga, key point of its eastern part. Riga was a strong and powerful fortress with a wide ditch, rampart and a few forts covered the city outside. The garrison, led by Shronberg, numbered about 14,000 men. In July 1709 the Russian forces, 40,000 men of Sheremetev, set off towards this district. Provision, siege artillery, and equipment were transported by the Dvina River. By October 1709 the necessary preparations had been accomplished. Sheremetev ordered a regular bombardment of the city. Russian infantry succeeded to capture the key fort Kobershenz. But winter began and part of the army was taken to winter quarters and the siege was carried on by Repnin. As a result of a fierce artillery fire many buildings had been destroyed and powder store blow up. Both the soldiers and town people were suffering from epidemic of plague. In spring Peter redoubled his efforts to strengthen the blockade. He placed a battery of artillery on the pile-bridges across West Dvina. Swedes attempted to assist the garrison, but their efforts to break through were repulsed. But they prepared a large land troops action which was halted by the Russian shore artillery. At night 30 May 1710 one of the Russian storm units captured the suburbs but only in July did the garrison surrender. Dunamunde, Pernauand, and Revel quickly shared the same fate. Dunamunde's garrison was cut by half and in August capitulated. After a short blockade Pernau was captured. At last Peter ordered to blockade Revel, strong point fortress with garrison of 4,500 men. The Russians succeeded to cover the ways of coming of fresh water and corn. Ivanicky brigade controlled the access to the fortress from seaside. The townspeople suffered greatly from starvation and plague. The commandant began negotiations and on 29 September Revel surrendered.
The actions of Russians in Karelia and Finland were connected with the storm or siege of two rather important fortresses, Vyborg and Keksholm. Vyborg was considered almost impregnable. It was assisted by the Swedish fleet and strong forts. The siege began in spring 1710 and very soon the main forces of Apraksin came to the walls of Vyborg. The Russians had camped, entrenched and Apraksin attempted to find a vulnerable point in enemy defense to hurl the artillery against it. After the water approaches were cleared of ice, Apraksin began to be provided with provision and ammunition. The blockade from the sea side was strengthened and on 13 June 1710 now expecting the assault the commandant consented to surrender. After some units were transferred to Keksholm and in two months this last Swedish point in Karelia was captured.

Link to Part 4 Great Northern War