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Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices of
the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, particularly Sumer, Akkad, Assyria
and Babylonia between circa 6000 BC[1] and 400 AD, after which they largely
gave way to Syriac Christianity practiced by today's Assyrians. The religious
development of Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian culture in general, especially in
the south, was not particularly influenced by the movements of the various
peoples into and throughout the area. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a
consistent and coherent tradition which adapted to the internal needs of its
adherents over millennia of development.[2] The earliest undercurrents of
Mesopotamian religious thought are believed to have developed in Mesopotamia in
the sixth millennium BC, coinciding with the region beginning to be permanently
settled.[1] The earliest evidence of Mesopotamian religion date to the
mid-fourth millennium BC, coinciding with the invention of writing, and
involved the worship of forces of nature as providers of sustenance.[citation
needed] In the 3rd millennium BC objects of worship were personified and became
an expansive cast of divinities with particular functions. The last stages of
Mesopotamian polytheism, which developed in the 2nd and 1st millenniums BC,
introduced greater emphasis on personal religion and structured the gods into a
monarchical hierarchy with the national god being the head of the pantheon.[2]
Mesopotamian religion finally declined with the spread of Iranian religions
during the Achaemenid Empire and with the Christianization of Mesopotamia.
History See also: Sumerian religion and Babylonian religion Overview map of
ancient Mesopotamia. The earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious
thought are believed to have developed in the first half of the sixth
millennium BC, at the time people first began to permanently settle in
Mesopotamia owing to improved irrigation. The early religious developments of
the region are unknown since they preceded the invention of writing.[1] The
first evidence for what is recognisably Mesopotamian religion can be seen with
the invention in Mesopotamia of writing circa 3500 BC. The people of
Mesopotamia originally consisted of two groups, East Semitic Akkadian speakers
(later divided into the Assyrians and Babylonians) and the people of Sumer, who
spoke Sumerian, a language isolate. These peoples were members of various
city-states and small kingdoms. The Sumerians left the first records, and are
believed to have been the founders of the civilization of the Ubaid period
(6500 BC to 3800 BC) in Upper Mesopotamia. By historical times they resided in
southern Mesopotamia, which was known as Sumer (and much later, Babylonia), and
had considerable influence on the Akkadian speakers and their culture. The
Akkadian-speaking Semites are believed to have entered the region at some point
between 3500 BC and 3000 BC, with Akkadian names first appearing in the regnal
lists of these states c. 29th century BC. The Sumerians were advanced: as well
as inventing writing, early forms of mathematics, early wheeled
vehicles/chariots, astronomy, astrology, written code of law, organised
medicine, advanced agriculture and architecture, and the calendar. They created
the first city-states such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Isin, Kish, Umma, Eridu, Adab,
Akshak, Sippar, Nippur and Larsa, each of them ruled by an ensí. The
Sumerians remained largely dominant in this synthesised culture, however, until
the rise of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad circa 2335 BC, which
united all of Mesopotamia under one ruler.[3] There was increasing syncretism
between the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures and deities, with the Akkadians
typically preferring to worship fewer deities but elevating them to greater
positions of power. Circa 2335 BC, Sargon of Akkad conquered all of
Mesopotamia, uniting its inhabitants into the world's first empire and
spreading its domination into ancient Iran, the Levant, Anatolia, Canaan and
the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadian Empire endured for two centuries before
collapsing due to economic decline, internal strife and attacks from the north
east by the Gutian people. Following a brief Sumerian revival with the Third
Dynasty of Ur or Neo-Sumerian Empire, Mesopotamia broke up into a number of
Akkadian states. Assyria had evolved during the 25th century BC, and asserted
itself in the north circa 2100 BC in the Old Assyrian Empire and southern
Mesopotamia fragmented into a number of kingdoms, the largest being Isin, Larsa
and Eshnunna. In 1894 BC the initially minor city-state of Babylon was founded
in the south by invading West Semitic-speaking Amorites. It was rarely ruled by
native dynasties throughout its history. Some time after this period, the
Sumerians disappeared, becoming wholly absorbed into the Akkadian-speaking
population. Assyrian kings are attested from the late 25th century BC and
dominated northern Mesopotamia and parts of eastern Anatolia and northeast
Syria. Circa 1750 BC, the Amorite ruler of Babylon, King Hammurabi, conquered
much of Mesopotamia, but this empire collapsed after his death, and Babylonia
was reduced to the small state it had been upon its founding. The Amorite
dynasty was deposed in 1595 BC after attacks from mountain-dwelling people
known as the Kassites from the Zagros Mountains, who went on to rule Babylon
for over 500 years. Assyria, having been the dominant power in the region with
the Old Assyrian Empire between the 20th and 18th centuries BC before the rise
of Hammurabi, once more became a major power with the Middle Assyrian Empire
(13911050 BC). Assyria defeated the Hittites and Mitanni, and its growing
power forced the New Kingdom of Egypt to withdraw from the Near East. The
Middle Assyrian Empire at its height stretched from the Caucasus to modern
Bahrain and from Cyprus to western Iran. The Neo-Assyrian Empire (911605
BC) was the most dominant power on earth and the largest empire the world had
yet seen between the 10th century BC and the late 7th century BC, with an
empire stretching from Cyprus in the west to central Iran in the east, and from
the Caucasus in the north to Nubia, Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula in the
south, facilitating the spread of Mesopotamian culture and religion far and
wide under emperors such as Ashurbanipal, Tukulti-Ninurta II, Tiglath-Pileser
III, Shalmaneser IV, Sargon II, Sennacherib and Esarhaddon. During the
Neo-Assyrian Empire, Mesopotamian Aramaic became the lingua franca of the
empire, and also Mesopotamia proper. The last written records in Akkadian were
astrological texts dating from 78 CE discovered in Assyria. The empire fell
between 612 BC and 599 BC after a period of severe internal civil war in
Assyria which soon spread to Babylonia, leaving Mesopotamia in a state of
chaos. A weakened Assyria was then subject to combined attacks by a coalition
of hitherto vassals, in the form of the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes,
Scythians, Persians, Sagartians and Cimmerians beginning in 616 BC. These were
led by Nabopolassar of Babylon and Cyaxares of Media and Persia. Nineveh was
sacked in 612 BC, Harran fell in 608 BC, Carchemish in 605 BC, and final traces
of Assyrian imperial administration disappeared from Dur-Katlimmu by 599 BC.
Babylon had a brief late flowering of power and influence, initially under the
Chaldean dynasty, which took over much of the empire formerly held by their
northern kinsmen. However, the last king of Babylonia, Nabonidus, an Assyrian,
paid little attention to politics, preferring to worship the lunar deity Sin,
leaving day-to-day rule to his son Belshazzar. This and the fact that the
Persians and Medes to the east were growing in power now that the might of
Assyria that had held them in vassalage for centuries was gone, spelt the death
knell for native Mesopotamian power. The Achaemenid Empire conquered the
Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC, after which the Chaldeans disappeared from
history, although Mesopotamian people, culture and religion continued to endure
after this. Effect of Assyrian religious beliefs on its political structure
Like many nations in Mesopotamian history, Assyria was originally, to a great
extent, an oligarchy rather than a monarchy. Authority was considered to lie
with "the city", and the polity had three main centres of
poweran assembly of elders, a hereditary ruler, and an eponym. The ruler
presided over the assembly and carried out its decisions. He was not referred
to with the usual Akkadian term for "king", arrum; that was
instead reserved for the city's patron deity Ashur, of whom the ruler was the
high priest. The ruler himself was only designated as "steward of
Assur" (iiak Assur), where the term for steward is a borrowing
from Sumerian ensí. The third centre of power was the eponym (limmum),
who gave the year his name, similarly to the eponymous archon and Roman consuls
of classical antiquity. He was annually elected by lot and was responsible for
the economic administration of the city, which included the power to detain
people and confiscate property. The institution of the eponym as well as the
formula iiak Assur lingered on as ceremonial vestiges of this early
system throughout the history of the Assyrian monarchy.[4] Religion in the
Neo-Assyrian Empire The religion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire centered around the
Assyrian king as the king of their lands as well. However, kingship at the time
was linked very closely with the idea of divine mandate.[5] The Assyrian king,
while not being a god himself, was acknowledged as the chief servant of the
chief god, Ashur. In this manner, the king's authority was seen as absolute so
long as the high priest reassured the peoples that the gods, or in the case of
the henotheistic Assyrians, the god, was pleased with the current ruler.[5] For
the Assyrians who lived in Assur and the surrounding lands, this system was the
norm. For the conquered peoples, however, it was novel, particularly to the
people of smaller city-states. In time, Ashur was promoted from being the local
deity of Assur to the overlord of the vast Assyrian domain, which spread from
the Caucasus and Armenia in the north to Egypt, Nubia and the Arabian Peninsula
in the south, and from Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean Sea in the west to
central Iran in the east.[5] Assur, the patron deity of the city of Assur from
the late Bronze Age, was in constant rivalry with the patron deity of Babylon,
Marduk. Worship was conducted in his name throughout the lands dominated by the
Assyrians. With the worship of Assur across much of the Fertile Crescent, the
Assyrian king could command the loyalty of his fellow servants of Assur. Later
Mesopotamian history In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the Achaemenid
Empire (539332 BC), then ruled by Cyrus the Great. This brought to an end
over 3,000 years of Semitic Mesopotamian dominance of the Near East. The
Persians maintained and did not interfere in the native culture and religion
and Assyria and Babylon continued to exist as entities (although Chaldea and
the Chaldeans disappeared), and Assyria was strong enough to launch major
rebellions against Persia in 522 and 482 BC. During this period the Syriac
language and Syriac script evolved in Assyria among the Assyrian people, and
were centuries later to be the vehicle for the spread of Syriac Christianity
throughout the near east. Then, two centuries later in 330 BC the Macedonian
emperor Alexander the Great overthrew the Persians and took control of
Mesopotamia itself. After Alexander's death increased Hellenistic influence was
brought to the region by the Seleucid Empire.[6] Assyria and Babylonia later
became provinces under the Parthian Empire (Athura and province of Babylonia),
Rome (province of Assyria) and Sassanid Empire (province of Asuristan).
Babylonia was dissolved as an entity during the Parthian Empire, though Assyria
endured as a geo-political entity until the 7th century AD Arab Islamic
conquest, while the Assyrians are still present today.
During the Parthian Empire there was a major revival in Assyria (known as
Athura and Assuristan) between the 2nd century BC and 4th century CE,[7] with
temples once more being dedicated to gods such as Ashur, Sin, Shamash, Hadad
and Ishtar in various Parthian vassal states in Mesopotamia.[8][9] Despite this
period of revival, from the first century AD onwards, Christianity spread
through Mesopotamia, with much of the populace converting to Eastern Rite
Christianity in the form of the Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church,
as well as Judaism. Gnostic religions such as Mandaeism also became popular,
though native religions, in decline, still coexisted alongside these new
monotheistic religions among the native populace; gods such as Ashur and Sin
were still largely worshiped until the 4th century CE in Assyria; even up til
the 10th century AD in Harran (the "Sabians" of Harran), the last
capital of an independent Assyria, and the 18th century AD in Mardin (the
Shamsiyah).[10] In the 3rd century CE, another native Mesopotamian religion
flourished, Manicheanism, which incorporated elements of Christianity, Judaism,
Buddhism, and Zoroastrianism, as well as local Mesopotamian elements.[11]
Mythology Main article: Mesopotamian myths There are no specific written
records explaining Mesopotamian religious cosmology that survive today.
Nonetheless, modern scholars have examined various accounts, and created what
is believed to be an at least partially accurate depiction of Mesopotamian
cosmology.[12] In the Epic of Creation, dated to 1200 BC, it explains that the
god Marduk killed the mother goddess Tiamat and used half her body to create
the earth, and the other half to create both the paradise of amû
and the netherworld of ir?itu.[13] A document from a similar period stated that
the universe was a spheroid, with three levels of amû, where the
gods dwelt, and where the stars existed, above the three levels of earth below
it.[14] Deities Further information: List of Mesopotamian deities The goddess
Ishtar, winged and wearing a version of the horned cap of divinity. Detail of
the so-called "Ishtar vase", early 2nd millennium BC (Louvre AO
17000)[15] Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, thereby accepting the
existence of many different deities, both male and female, though it was also
henotheistic,[16] with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by their
specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or
city-state that held that deity as its patron deity, for instance the god Enki
was often associated with the city of Eridu in Sumer, the god Ashur with Assur
and Assyria, Enlil with the Sumerian city of Nippur, Ishtar with the Assyrian
city of Arbela, and the god Marduk was associated with Babylon.[17] Though the
full number of gods and goddesses found in Mesopotamia is not known, K.
Tallqvist, in his Akkadische Götterepitheta (1938) counted around 2,400
that scholars know, most of which had Sumerian names. In the Sumerian language,
the gods were referred to as dingir, while in the Akkadian language they were
known as ilu and it seems that there was syncreticism between the gods
worshipped by the two groups, adopting one another's deities.[18] The
Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and were anthropomorphic,
thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often acted like humans,
requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol and subsequently
suffering the effects of drunkenness,[19] but were thought to have a higher
degree of perfection than common men. They were thought to be more powerful,
all-seeing and all-knowing, unfathomable, and, above all, immortal. One of
their prominent features was a terrifying brightness (melammu) which surrounded
them, producing an immediate reaction of awe and reverence among men.[20] In
many cases, the various deities were family relations of one another, a trait
found in many other polytheistic religions.[21] The historian J. Bottéro
was of the opinion that the gods were not viewed mystically, but were instead
seen as high-up masters who had to be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved
and adored.[22] Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, often had
names that were devoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have
begun in the third millennium BC among the Sumerians, but also was later
adopted by the Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians as well.[23] Initially, the
pantheon was not ordered, but later Mesopotamian theologians came up with the
concept of ranking the deities in order of importance. A Sumerian list of
around 560 deities that did this was uncovered at Farm and Tell Abû
?alabikh and dated to circa 2600 BC, ranking five primary deities as being of
particular importance.[24] One of the most important of these early
Mesopotamian deities was the god Enlil, who was originally a Sumerian divinity
viewed as a king of the gods and a controller of the world, who was later
adopted by the Akkadians. Another was the Sumerian god An, who served a similar
role to Enlil and became known as Anu among the Akkadians. The Sumerian god
Enki was later also adopted by the Akkadians, initially under his original
name, and later as Éa. Similarly the Sumerian moon god Nanna became the
Akkadian Sîn while the Sumerian sun god Utu became the Akkadian Shamash.
One of the most notable goddesses was the Sumerian sex and war deity Inanna.
With the later rise to power of the Babylonians in the 18th century BC, the
king, Hammurabi, declared Marduk, a deity who before then had not been of
significant importance, to a position of supremacy alongside Anu and Enlil in
southern Mesopotamia.[25] Perhaps the most significant legend to survive from
Mesopotamian religion is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells the story of the
heroic king Gilgamesh and his wild friend Enkidu, and the former's search for
immortality which is entwined with all the gods and their approval. It also
contains the earliest reference to The Great Flood.
Recent discoveries In March 2020, archaeologists announced the discovery of a
5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic
cups, bowls, jars, animal bones and ritual processions dedicated to Ningirsu at
the site of Girsu. One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with
eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated to Nanshe.[26][27]
Cultic practice "Enlil! his authority is far-reaching; his word is sublime
and holy. His decisions are unalterable; he decides fate forever! His eyes
scrutinize the entire world!" A prayer to the god Enlil.[28] Public
devotions Further information: Mesopotamian temple Each Mesopotamian city was
home to a deity, and each of the prominent deities was the patron of a city,
and all known temples were located in cities, though there may have been
shrines in the suburbs.[29] The temple itself was constructed of mud brick in
the form of a ziggurat, which rose to the sky in a series of stairstep stages.
Its significance and symbolism have been the subject of much discussion, but
most regard the tower as a kind of staircase or ladder for the god to descend
from and ascend to the heavens, though there are signs which point towards an
actual cult having been practiced in the upper temple, so the entire temple may
have been regarded as a giant altar. Other theories treat the tower as an image
of the cosmic mountain where a dying and rising god "lay buried."
Some temples, such as the temple of Enki in Eridu contained a holy tree
(kiskanu) in a holy grove, which was the central point of various rites
performed by the king, who functioned as a "master gardener."[30]
Mesopotamian temples were originally built to serve as dwelling places for the
god, who was thought to reside and hold court on earth for the good of the city
and kingdom.[31] His presence was symbolized by an image of the god in a
separate room. The god's presence within the image seems to have been thought
of in a very concrete way, as instruments for the presence of the
deity."[32] This is evident from the poem How Erra Wrecked the World, in
which Erra deceived the god Marduk into leaving his cult statue.[33] Once
constructed, idols were consecrated through special nocturnal rituals where
they were given "life", and their mouth "was opened" (pet
pî) and washed (mes pî) so they could see and eat.[30] If the deity
approved, it would accept the image and agree to "inhabit" it. These
images were also entertained, and sometime escorted on hunting expeditions. In
order to service the gods, the temple was equipped with a household with
kitchens and kitchenware, sleeping rooms with beds and side rooms for the
deity's family, as well as a courtyard with a basin and water for cleansing
visitors, as well as a stable for the god's chariot and draft animals.[34]
Generally, the god's well-being was maintained through service, or work
(dullu). The image was dressed and served banquets twice a day. It is not known
how the god was thought to consume the food, but a curtain was drawn before the
table while he or she "ate", just as the king himself was not allowed
to be seen by the masses while he ate. Occasionally, the king shared in these
meals, and the priests may have had some share in the offerings as well.
Incense was also burned before the image, because it was thought that the gods
enjoyed the smell. Sacrificial meals were also set out regularly, with a
sacrificial animal seen as a replacement (puhu) or substitute (dinanu) for a
man, and it was considered that the anger of the gods or demons was then
directed towards the sacrificial animal. Additionally, certain days required
extra sacrifices and ceremonies for certain gods, and every day was sacred to a
particular god.[35] The king was thought, in theory, to be the religious leader
(enu or angu) of the cult and exercised a large number of duties within
the temple, with a large number of specialists whose task was to mediate
between men and gods:[36] a supervising or "watchman" priest
(egallu), priests for individual purification against demons and
magicians (aipu), priests for the purification of the temple
(mamau), priests to appease the wrath of the gods with song and
music (kalu), as well as female singers (naru), male singers (zammeru),
craftsmen (mare ummani), swordbearers (na pa?ri), masters of divination
(barû), penitents (a'ilu), and others.[37]
Private devotions Besides the worship of the gods at public rituals,
individuals also paid homage to a personal deity. As with other deities, the
personal gods changed over time and little is known about early practice as
they are rarely named or described. In the mid-third millennium BC, some rulers
regarded a particular god or gods as being their personal protector. In the
second millennium BC, personal gods began to function more on behalf of the
common man,[38] with whom he had a close, personal relationship, maintained
through prayer and maintenance of his god's statue.[39] A number of written
prayers have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically exalt
the god that they are describing above all others.[40] The historian J.
Bottéro stated that these poems display "extreme reverence,
profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that the supernatural evoked in
the hearts of those ancient believers" but that they showed a people who
were scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them.[22] They were
thought to offer good luck, success, and protection from disease and
demons,[38] and one's place and success in society was thought to depend on his
personal deity, including the development of his certain talents and even his
personality. This was even taken to the point that everything he experienced
was considered a reflection of what was happening to his personal god.[39] When
a man neglected his god, it was assumed that the demons were free to inflict
him, and when he revered his god, that god was like a shepherd who seeks food
for him.[41] There was a strong belief in demons in Mesopotamia, and private
individuals, like the temple priests, also participated in incantations
(iptu) to ward them off.[42] Although there was no collective term for
these beings either in Sumerian or Akkadian, they were merely described as
harmful or dangerous beings or forces, and they were used as a logical way to
explain the existence of evil in the world.[43] They were thought to be
countless in number, and were thought to even attack the gods as well. Besides
demons, there were also spirits of the dead, (etimmu) who could also cause
mischief. Amulets were occasionally used, and sometimes a special priest or
exorcist (aipu or mamau) was required. Incantations and
ceremonies were also used to cure diseases which were also thought to be
associated with demonic activity, sometimes making use of sympathetic
magic.[44] Sometimes an attempt was made to capture a demon by making an image
of it, placing it above the head of a sick person, then destroying the image,
which the demon was somehow likely to inhabit. Images of protecting spirits
were also made and placed at gates to ward off disaster.[45] Divination was
also employed by private individuals, with the assumption that the gods have
already determined the destinies of men and these destinies could be
ascertained through observing omens and through rituals (e.g., casting
lots).[45] It was believed that the gods expressed their will through
"words" (amatu) and "commandments" (qibitu) which were not
necessarily spoken, but were thought to manifest in the unfolding routine of
events and things.[46] There were countless ways to divine the future, such as
observing oil dropped into a cup of water (lecanomancy), observing the entrails
of sacrificial animals (extispicy), observation of the behavior of birds
(augury) and observing celestial and meteorological phenomena (astrology), as
well as through interpretation of dreams. Often interpretation of these
phenomena required the need for two classes of priests: askers (sa'ilu) and
observer (baru), and also sometimes a lower class of ecstatic seer (mahhu) that
was also associated with witchcraft.[47]
Morality, virtue, and sin "Do not return evil to the man who disputes with
you, requite with kindness your evil-doer, maintain justice to your enemy...
Let not your heart be induced to do evil... Give food to eat, beer to drink,
the one begging for alms honor, clothe; in this a man's god takes pleasure, it
is pleasing to Shamash, who will repay him with favour. Be helpful, do
good" Incantation from the urpu series.[48] Although ancient
paganism tended to focus more on duty and ritual than morality, a number of
general moral virtues can be gleaned from surviving prayers and myths. It was
believed that man originated as a divine act of creation, and the gods were
believed to be the source of life, and held power over sickness and health, as
well as the destinies of men. Personal names show that each child was
considered a gift from divinity.[49] Man was believed to have been created to
serve the gods, or perhaps wait on them: the god is lord (belu) and man is
servant or slave (ardu), and was to fear (puluhtu) the gods and have the
appropriate attitude towards them. Duties seem to have been primarily of a
cultic and ritual nature,[50] although some prayers express a positive
psychological relationship, or a sort of conversion experience in regard to a
god.[51] Generally the reward to mankind is described as success and long
life.[49] Every man also had duties to his fellow man which had some religious
character, particularly the king's duties to his subjects. It was thought that
one of the reasons the gods gave power to the king was to exercise justice and
righteousness,[52] described as mearu and kettu, literally
"straightness, rightness, firmness, truth".[53] Examples of this
include not alienating and causing dissension between friends and relatives,
setting innocent prisoners free, being truthful, being honest in trade,
respecting boundary lines and property rights, and not putting on airs with
subordinates. Some of these guidelines are found in the second tablet of the
urpu incantation series.[48] Sin, on the other hand, was expressed by the
words hitu (mistake, false step), annu or arnu (rebellion), and qillatu (sin or
curse),[48] with strong emphasis on the idea of rebellion, sometimes with the
idea that sin is man's wishing to "live on his own terms" (ina
ramanisu). Sin also was described as anything which incited the wrath of the
gods. Punishment came through sickness or misfortune,[51] which inevitably lead
to the common reference to unknown sins, or the idea that one can transgress a
divine prohibition without knowing itpsalms of lamentation rarely mention
concrete sins. This idea of retribution was also applied to the nation and
history as a whole. A number of examples of Mesopotamian literature show how
war and natural disasters were treated as punishment from the gods, and how
kings were used as a tool for deliverance.[54] Sumerian myths suggest a
prohibition against premarital sex.[55] Marriages were often arranged by the
parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the
approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as
soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride's father. Nonetheless,
evidence suggests that premarital sex was a common, but surreptitious,
occurrence.[56]:?78? The worship of Inanna/Ishtar, which was prevalent in
Mesopotamia could involve wild, frenzied dancing and bloody ritual celebrations
of social and physical abnormality. It was believed that "nothing is
prohibited to Inanna", and that by depicting transgressions of normal
human social and physical limitations, including traditional gender definition,
one could cross over from the "conscious everyday world into the trance
world of spiritual ecstasy."[57] Afterlife The ancient Mesopotamians
believed in an afterlife that was a land below our world. It was this land,
known alternately as Arallû, Ganzer or Irkallu, the latter of which meant
"Great Below", that it was believed everyone went to after death,
irrespective of social status or the actions performed during life.[58] Unlike
Christian Hell, the Mesopotamians considered the underworld neither a
punishment nor a reward.[59] Nevertheless, the condition of the dead was hardly
considered the same as the life previously enjoyed on earth: they were
considered merely weak and powerless ghosts. The myth of Ishtar's descent into
the underworld relates that "dust is their food and clay their
nourishment, they see no light, where they dwell in darkness." Stories
such as the Adapa myth resignedly relate that, due to a blunder, all men must
die and that true everlasting life is the sole property of the gods.[20]
Historical study Challenges The modern study of Mesopotamia (Assyriology) is
still a fairly young science, beginning only in the middle of the Nineteenth
century,[61] and the study of Mesopotamian religion can be a complex and
difficult subject because, by nature, their religion was governed only by
usage, not by any official decision,[62] and by nature it was neither dogmatic
nor systematic. Deities, characters, and their actions within myths changed in
character and importance over time, and occasionally depicted different,
sometimes even contrasting images or concepts. This is further complicated by
the fact that scholars are not entirely certain what role religious texts
played in the Mesopotamian world.[63] For many decades, some scholars of the
ancient Near East argued that it was impossible to define there as being a
singular Mesopotamian religion, with Leo Oppenheim (1964) stating that "a
systematic presentation of Mesopotamian religion cannot and should not be
written. "[64] Others, like Jean Bottéro, the author of Religion in
Ancient Mesopotamia, disagreed, believing that it would be too complicated to
divide the religion into many smaller groups, stating that: Should we dwell on
a certain social or cultural category: the "official religion, " the
"private religion, " the religion of the "educated"...
Should we emphasise a certain city or province: Ebla, Mari, Assyria? Should we
concentrate on a certain period in time: the Seleucid, the Achaemenid, the
Chaldean, the Neo-Assyrian, the Kassite, the Old Babylonian, the Neo-Sumerian,
or the Old Akkadian period? Since, contrary to what some would imprudently lead
us to believe, there were no distinct religions but only successive states of
the same religious system... such an approach would be excessive, even
pointless.[65] Panbabylonism Main article: Panbabylonism According to
Panbabylonism, a school of thought founded by Hugo Winckler and held in the
early 20th century among primarily German Assyriologists, there was a common
cultural system extending over the ancient Near East which was overwhelmingly
influenced by the Babylonians. According to this theory the religions of the
Near East were rooted in Babylonian astral science- including the Hebrew Bible
and Judaism. This theory of a Babylonian-derived Bible originated from the
discovery of a stele in the acropolis of Susa bearing a Babylonian flood myth
with many similarities to the flood of Genesis, the Epic of Gilgamesh. However,
flood myths appear in almost every culture around the world, including cultures
that never had contact with Mesopotamia. The fundamental tenets of
Panbabylonism were eventually dismissed as pseudoscientific,[66] however
Assyriologists and biblical scholars recognize the influence of Babylonian
mythology on Jewish mythology and other Near Eastern mythologies, albeit
indirect. Indeed, similarities between both religious traditions may draw from
even older sources.[67]
Influence Biblical eschatology In the New Testament Book of Revelation,
Babylonian religion is associated with religious apostasy of the lowest order,
the archetype of a political/religious system heavily tied to global commerce,
and it is depicted as a system which, according to the author, continued to
hold sway in the first century CE, eventually to be utterly annihilated.
According to some interpretations, this is believed to refer to the Roman
Empire,[68] but according to other interpretations, this system remains extant
in the world until the Second Coming.[69][70][71] Revelation 17:5: "And
upon her forehead was a name written, mystery, Babylon the great, the mother of
harlots and abominations of the earth," Revelation 18:9: "The kings
of the earth who committed fornication and lived luxuriously with her will weep
and lament for her, when they see the smoke of her burning, standing at a
distance for fear of her torment, saying, 'Alas, alas that great city Babylon,
that mighty city! For in one hour your judgment has come.' And the merchants of
the earth shall weep and mourn over her; for no man buyeth their merchandise
any more..." Popular culture Mesopotamian religion, culture, history and
mythology has influenced some forms of music. As well as traditional Syriac
folk music, many heavy metal bands have named themselves after Mesopotamian
gods and historical figures, including the partly Assyrian band Melechesh. New
religious movements See also: Zuism Various new religious movements in the 20th
and 21st centuries have been founded that venerate some of the deities found in
ancient Mesopotamian religion, including various strains of neopaganism that
have adopted the worship of the historical Mesopotamian gods.
Reconstruction As with most dead religions, many aspects of the common
practices and intricacies of the doctrine have been lost and forgotten over
time. However, much of the information and knowledge has survived, and great
work has been done by historians and scientists, with the help of religious
scholars and translators, to re-construct a working knowledge of the religious
history, customs, and the role these beliefs played in everyday life in Sumer,
Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia, Ebla and Chaldea during this time. Mesopotamian
religion is thought to have been an influence on subsequent religions
throughout the world, including Canaanite, Aramean, and ancient Greek.
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, worshipping over 2,100 different
deities,[18] many of which were associated with a specific state within
Mesopotamia, such as Sumer, Akkad, Assyria or Babylonia, or a specific
Mesopotamian city, such as; (Ashur), Nineveh, Ur, Nippur, Arbela, Harran, Uruk,
Ebla, Kish, Eridu, Isin, Larsa, Sippar, Gasur, Ekallatum, Til Barsip, Mari,
Adab, Eshnunna and Babylon. Some of the most significant of these Mesopotamian
deities were Anu, Enki, Enlil, Ishtar (Astarte), Ashur, Shamash, Shulmanu,
Tammuz, Adad/Hadad, Sin (Nanna), Kur, Dagan (Dagon), Ninurta, Nisroch, Nergal,
Tiamat, Ninlil, Bel, Tishpak and Marduk. Mesopotamian religion has historically
the oldest body of recorded literature of any religious tradition. What is
known about Mesopotamian religion comes from archaeological evidence uncovered
in the region, particularly numerous literary sources, which are usually
written in Sumerian, Akkadian (Assyro-Babylonian) or Aramaic using cuneiform
script on clay tablets and which describe both mythology and cultic practices.
Other artifacts can also be useful when reconstructing Mesopotamian religion.
As is common with most ancient civilizations, the objects made of the most
durable and precious materials, and thus more likely to survive, were
associated with religious beliefs and practices. This has prompted one scholar
to make the claim that the Mesopotamian's "entire existence was infused by
their religiosity, just about everything they have passed on to us can be used
as a source of knowledge about their religion."[72] While Mesopotamian
religion had almost completely died out by approximately 400500 CE after
its indigenous adherents had largely become Assyrian Christians, it has still
had an influence on the modern world, predominantly because many biblical
stories that are today found in Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Mandaeism were
possibly based upon earlier Mesopotamian myths,[citation needed] in particular
that of the creation myth, the Garden of Eden, the flood myth, the Tower of
Babel, figures such as Nimrod and Lilith and the Book of Esther. It has also
inspired various contemporary neo-pagan groups.
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