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The Wars of the Diadochi, or Wars of
Alexander's Successors, were a series of conflicts fought between Alexander the
Great's generals over the rule of his vast empire after his death. They
occurred between 322 and 281.
Opponent:
322–320BC: Antipatrid Dynast, Antigonid Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty versus:
Perdiccas's faction
319–315BC: Antigonid Dynasty, Antipatrid Dynasty, Ptolemaic Dynasty,
Thrace versus: Polyperchon's faction, Epirus
314–312BC: Antigonid Dynasty, Polyperchon versus: Ptolemaic Egypt,
Antipatrid Macedon, Thrace, Caria
311–309BC: Antigonid Dynasty versus: Seleucid Empire
308–301BC: Antigonid Dynasty versus: Ptolemaic Egypt, Antipatrid Macedon,
Thrace, Seleucid Empire
Commanders and leaders
322–320BC: Antipater, Craterus † Neoptolemus † Antigonus Ptolemy
versus: Perdiccas, Executed Antigenes, Seleucus, Peithon, Eumenes
319–315BC: Antigonus, Demitrius, Peithon, Seleucus, Cassander, Phillip III
Executed, Ptolemy, Lysimachus versus: Polyperchon, Eumenes Executed, Peucestas,
Eudamus Executed, Antigenes Executed, Olympias Executed, Aeacides of Epirus
†
314–312BC: Antigonus, Demitrius, Ptolemaus, Aristodemus, Polyperchon
versus Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, Lysimachus, Asander
311–309BC: Antigonus, Demitrius versus: Seleucus
308–301BC: Antigonus, † Demitrius versus: Ptolemy, Cassander,
Lysimachus, Seleucus
Background:
Main article: Partition of Babylon:
Partition of Triparadisus
On June 10, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died, leaving behind a huge empire
stretching from Greece and Macedon in Europe to the Indus valley in India. His
death left the Macedonians in a very difficult position. The ruthlessness of
Philip and Alexander toward possible rivals had left the Empire without a clear
and competent successor. The Argead family was reduced to Alexander's mentally
defective half-brother Arrhidaeus, his yet unborn son Alexander IV, and his
reputed illegitimate son Heracles, a mere child, and the women of the family,
his mother Olympias, his sister Cleopatra, and his half-sisters Thessalonice
and Cynane.
Without a chosen successor, there was almost immediately a dispute among his
generals as to whom his successor should be. Meleager and the infantry
supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while
Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of
Alexander's unborn child by Roxana.
A compromise was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become king,
and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it
was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become regent of the
empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and
the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other
cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of
Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire.
Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took
Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia;
Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace;
Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia. Macedon
and the rest of Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater, who had
governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most-able lieutenant,
while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia
and Paphlagonia.
In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexander's arrangements intact –
Taxiles and Porus ruled over their kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law
Oxyartes ruled Gandara; Sibyrtius ruled Arachosia and Gedrosia; Stasanor ruled
Aria and Drangiana; Philip ruled Bactria and Sogdiana; Phrataphernes ruled
Parthia and Hyrcania; Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge over
Carmania; Atropates governed northern Media; Archon got Babylonia; and
Arcesilas ruled northern Mesopotamia.
Lamian War:
Main article: Lamian War
The news of Alexander's death inspired a revolt in Greece, known as the Lamian
War. Athens and other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in
the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a force sent by Leonnatus, who
was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end until Craterus's
arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of Crannon on
September 5, 322 BC. For a time, this brought an end to Greek resistance to
Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers
in the eastern parts of the empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued
Cappadocia.
First War of the Diadochi, 322–320 BC
The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian empire after the settlement in
Babylon, 323 BC
Eumenes defeating Neoptolemus, in the Battle of the Hellespont (321 BC),
Wars of the Diadochi.
Perdiccas (who was already betrothed to the daughter of Antipater, Nicea)
attempted to marry Alexander's sister, Cleopatra, a marriage which would have
given Perdiccas a claim to the Macedonian throne. Antipater, Craterus and
Antigonus formed a coalition against Perdiccas's growing power.
Antipater sent his army under the command of the Craterus, into Asia Minor.
This was the beginning of the first of the Diadochi Wars. Menander, Asander and
Ptolemy joined them in rebellion against Perdiccas. The actual outbreak of war
was triggered by Ptolemy's theft of Alexander's body, and diversion of it to
Egypt.
Although Eumenes defeated Craterus at the battle of the Hellespont, it was all
for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon,
Seleucus, and Antigenes during the invasion of Egypt (after a failed crossing
of the Nile).
Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas' murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus
regents in Perdiccas's place, but soon these came to a new agreement with
Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. Antipater was made Regent of the
Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus was made Strategos
of Asia and remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was
added Lycaonia.
Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the three murderers
of Perdiccas—Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes—were given the
provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former
regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was charged with the task of
rooting out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In effect, Antipater
retained for himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as Strategos of the
East, held a similar position in Asia.[3] Although the First War ended with the
death of Perdiccas, his cause lived on. Eumenes was still at large with a
victorious army in Asia Minor. So were Alcetas, Attalus, Dokimos and Polemon
who had also gathered their armies in Asia Minor. In 319 BC Antigonus, after
receiving reinforcements from Antipater's European army, first campaigned
against Eumenes (see: battle of Orkynia), then against the combined forces of
Alcetas, Attalus, Dokimos and Polemon (see: battle of Cretopolis), defeating
them all.
Second War of the Diadochi, 318–315 BC
Main article: Second War of the Diadochi
Another war soon broke out between the Diadochi. At the start of 318 BC
Arrhidaios, the governor of Hellespontine Phrygia, tried to take the city of
Cyzicus. Antigonus, as the Strategos of Asia, took this as a challenge to his
authority and recalled his army from their winter quarters. He sent an army
against Arrhidaios while he himself marched with the main army into Lydia
against its governor Cleitus whom he drove out of his province. Cleitus fled to
Macedon and joined Polyperchon, the new Regent of the Empire, who decided to
march his army south to force the Greek cities to side with him against
Cassander and Antigonus.
Cassander, reinforced with troops and a fleet by Antigonus, sailed to Athens
and thwarted Polyperchon's efforts to take the city. From Athens Polyperchon
marched on Megalopolis which had sided with Cassander and besieged the city.
The siege failed and he had to retreat losing a lot of prestige and most of the
Greek cities. Eventually Polyperchon retreated to Epirus with the infant King
Alexander IV. There he joined forces with Alexander's mother Olympias and was
able to re-invade Macedon. King Philip Arrhidaeus, Alexander's half-brother,
having defected to Cassander's side at the prompting of his wife, Eurydice, was
forced to flee, only to be captured in Amphipolis, resulting in the execution
of himself and the forced suicide of his wife, both purportedly at the
instigation of Olympias. Cassander rallied once more, and seized Macedon.
Olympias was murdered, and Cassander gained control of the infant King and his
mother. Eventually Cassander became the dominant power in the European part of
the Empire, ruling over Macedon and large parts of Greece.
Meanwhile, Eumenes, who had gathered a small army in Cappadocia, had entered
the coalition of Polyperchon and Olympias. He took his army to the royal
treasury at Kyinda in Cilicia where he used its funds to recruit mercenaries.
He also secured the loyalty of 6,000 of Alexander's veterans, the Argyraspides
(the Silver Shields) and the Hypaspists, who were stationed in Cilicia.
In the spring of 317 BC he marched his army to Phoenica and began to raise a
naval force on the behalf of Polyperchon. Antigonus had spent the rest of 318
BC consolidating his position and gathering a fleet. He now used this fleet
(under the command of Nicanor who had returned from Athens) against
Polyperchon's fleet in the Hellespont. In a two-day battle near Byzantium,
Nicanor and Antigonus destroyed Polyperchon's fleet. Then, after settling his
affairs in western Asia Minor, Antigonus marched against Eumenes at the head of
a great army. Eumenes hurried out of Phoenicia and marched his army east to
gather support in the eastern provinces. In this he was successful, because
most of the eastern satraps joined his cause (when he arrived in Susiana) more
than doubling his army. They marched and counter-marched throughout
Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Susiana and Media until they faced each other on a
plain in the country of the Paraitakene in southern Media. There they fought a
great battle -the battle of Paraitakene- which ended inconclusively.
The next year (315) they fought another great but inconclusive battle -the
battle of Gabiene- during which some of Antigonus's troops plundered the enemy
camp.
Using this plunder as a bargaining tool, Antigonus bribed the Argyraspides who
arrested and handed over Eumenes. Antigonus had Eumenes and a couple of his
officers executed. With Eumenes's death, the war in the eastern part of the
Empire ended. Antigonus and Cassander had won the war. Antigonus now controlled
Asia Minor and the eastern provinces, Cassander controlled Macedon and large
parts of Greece, Lysimachus controlled Thrace, and Ptolemy controlled Egypt,
Syria, Cyrene and Cyprus. Their enemies were either dead or seriously reduced
in power and influence.
Third War of the Diadochi, 314–311 BC:
Though his authority had seemed secure with his victory over Eumenes, the
eastern dynasts were unwilling to see Antigonus rule all of Asia. In 314 BC
they demanded from Antigonus that he cede Lycia and Cappadocia to Cassander,
Hellepontine Phrygia to Lysimachus, all of Syria to Ptolemy, and Babylonia to
Seleucus, and that he share the treasures he had captured. Antigonus only
answer was to advise them to be ready, then, for war. In this war, Antigonus
faced an alliance of Ptolemy (with Seleucus serving him), Lysimachus, and
Cassander.
At the start of the campaigning season of 314 BC Antigonus invaded Syria and
Phoenica, which were under Ptolemy's control, and besieged Tyre.[19] Cassander
and Ptolemy started supporting Asander (satrap of Caria) against Antigonus who
ruled the neighbouring provinces of Lycia, Lydia and Greater Phrygia. Antigonus
then sent Aristodemus with 1,000 talents to the Peloponnese to raise a
mercenary army to fight Cassander,[20] he allied himself to Polyperchon, who
still controlled parts of the Peloponnese, and he proclaimed freedom for the
Greeks to get them on their side. He also sent his nephew Ptolemaios with an
army through Cappadocia to the Hellespont to cut Asander off from Lysimachus
and Cassander. Polemaios was successful, securing the northwest of Asia Minor
for Antigonus, even invading Ionia/Lydia and bottling up Asander in Caria, but
he was unable to drive his opponent from his satrapy. Eventually Antigonus
decided to campaign against Asander himself, leaving his oldest son Demetrius
to protect Syria and Phoenica against Ptolemy. Ptolemy and Seleucus invaded
from Egypt and defeated Demetrius in the Battle of Gaza. After the battle,
Seleucus went east and secured control of Babylon (his old satrapy), and then
went on to secure the eastern satrapies of Alexander's empire. Antigonus,
having defeated Asander, sent his nephews Telesphorus and Polemaios to Greece
to fight Cassander, he himself returned to Syria/Phoenica, drove off Ptolemy,
and sent Demetrius east to take care of Seleucus. Although Antigonus now
concluded a compromise peace with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, he
continued the war with Seleucus, attempting to recover control of the eastern
reaches of the empire. Although he went east himself in 310 BC, he was unable
to defeat Seleucus (he even lost a battle to Seleucus) and had to give up the
eastern satrapies. At about the same time, Cassander had young King Alexander
IV and his mother Roxane murdered, ending the Argead dynasty, which had ruled
Macedon for several centuries. For the moment, all of the various generals
continued to recognize the dead Alexander as king, since Cassander did not
publicly announce the deaths, but it seemed clear that at some point, one or
all of them would claim the kingship. At the end of the war there were five
Diadochi left: Cassander ruling Macedon and Thessaly, Lysimachus ruling Thrace,
Antigonus ruling Asia Minor, Syria and Phoenicia, Seleucus ruling the eastern
provinces and Ptolemy ruling Egypt and Cyprus. Each of them ruled as kings (in
all but name). Babylonian War, 311–309 BC Main article: Babylonian War The
Babylonian War was a conflict fought between 311–309 BC between the
Diadochi kings Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator, ending in a
victory for the latter, Seleucus I Nicator. The conflict ended any possibility
of restoration of the empire of Alexander the Great, a result confirmed in the
Battle of Ipsus.
Fourth War of the Diadochi, 308–301
BC:
War soon broke out again. Ptolemy had been expanding his power into the Aegean
and to Cyprus, while Seleucus went on a tour of the east to consolidate his
control of the vast eastern territories of Alexander's empire. Antigonus
resumed the war, sending his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece. In 307
he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's governor, and
proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius now turned his attention to Ptolemy,
invading Cyprus and defeating Ptolemy's fleet at the Battle of Salamis. In the
aftermath of this victory, Antigonus and Demetrius both assumed the crown, and
they were shortly followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and eventually
Cassander. In 306, Antigonus attempted to invade Egypt, but storms prevented
Demetrius' fleet from supplying him, and he was forced to return home. Now,
with Cassander and Ptolemy both weakened, and Seleucus still occupied in the
East, Antigonus and Demetrius turned their attention to Rhodes, which was
besieged by Demetrius's forces in 305 BC. The island was reinforced by troops
from Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. Ultimately, the Rhodians reached a
compromise with Demetrius – they would support Antigonus and Demetrius
against all enemies, save their great ally Ptolemy. Ptolemy took the title of
Soter ("Savior") for his role in preventing the fall of Rhodes, but
the victory was ultimately Demetrius', as it left him with a free hand to
attack Cassander in Greece. Demetrius returned to Greece, defeated Cassander,
and formed a new Hellenic League, with himself as general, to defend the Greek
cities against all enemies (and particularly Cassander). In the face of these
catastrophes, Cassander sued for peace, but Antigonus rejected the claims, and
Demetrius invaded Thessaly, where he and Cassander battled in inconclusive
engagements. But now Cassander called in aid from his allies, and Anatolia was
invaded by Lysimachus, forcing Demetrius to leave Thessaly and send his armies
to Asia Minor to assist his father.
With assistance from Cassander, Lysimachus overran much of western Anatolia,
but was soon (301 BC) isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus. Here came
the decisive intervention from Seleucus, who arrived in time to save Lysimachus
from disaster and utterly crush Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus was
killed in the fight, and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve
the remnants of his rule there. Lysimachus and Seleucus divided up Antigonus's
Asian territories between them, with Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor
and Seleucus the rest, except Cilicia and Lycia, which went to Cassander's
brother Pleistarchus.
The struggle over Macedon, 298–285 BC:
The events of the next decade and a half were centered around various intrigues
for control of Macedon itself. Cassander died in 298 BC, and his sons,
Antipater and Alexander, proved weaklings. After quarreling with his older
brother, Alexander V called in Demetrius, who had retained control of Cyprus,
the Peloponnese, and many of the Aegean islands, and had quickly seized control
of Cilicia and Lycia from Cassander's brother, as well as Pyrrhus, the King of
Epirus.
After Pyrrhus had intervened to seize the border region of Ambracia, Demetrius
invaded, killed Alexander, and seized control of Macedon for himself (294 BC).
While Demetrius consolidated his control of mainland Greece, his outlying
territories were invaded and captured by Lysimachus (who recovered western
Anatolia), Seleucus (who took most of Cilicia), and Ptolemy (who recovered
Cyprus, eastern Cilicia, and Lycia). Soon, Demetrius was forced from Macedon by
a rebellion supported by the alliance of Lysimachus and Pyrrhus, who divided
the Kingdom between them, and, leaving Greece to the control of his son,
Antigonus Gonatas, Demetrius launched an invasion of the east in 287 BC.
Although initially successful, Demetrius was ultimately captured by Seleucus
(286 BC), drinking himself to death two years later.
The struggle of Lysimachus and Seleucus, 285–281 BC:
Although Lysimachus and Pyrrhus had cooperated in driving Antigonus Gonatas
from Thessaly and Athens, in the wake of Demetrius's capture they soon fell
out, with Lysimachus driving Pyrrhus from his share of Macedon. Dynastic
struggles also rent Egypt, where Ptolemy decided to make his younger son
Ptolemy Philadelphus his heir rather than the elder, Ptolemy Ceraunus. Ceraunus
fled to Seleucus. The eldest Ptolemy died peacefully in his bed in 282 BC, and
Philadelphus succeeded him. Soon Lysimachus made the fatal mistake of having
his son Agathocles murdered at the say-so of his second wife, Arsinoe (282 BC).
Agathocles's widow, Lysandra, fled to Seleucus, who now made war upon
Lysimachus.
Seleucus, after appointing his son Antiochus ruler of his Asian territories,
defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in Lydia in 281 BC,
but Seleucus did not live to enjoy his triumph for long – he was almost
immediately murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, for reasons that remain unclear.
The Gallic invasions and consolidation, 280–275 BC:
Ptolemy Ceraunus was also not to enjoy the rule of Macedon for very long. The
death of Lysimachus had left the Danube border of the Macedonian kingdom open
to barbarian invasions, and soon tribes of Gauls were rampaging through Macedon
and Greece, and invading Asia Minor. Ptolemy Ceraunus was killed by the
invaders, and after several years of chaos, Demetrius's son Antigonus Gonatas
emerged as ruler of Macedon. In Asia, Seleucus's son, Antiochus I, also managed
to defeat the Celtic invaders, who settled down in central Anatolia in the part
of eastern Phrygia that would henceforward be known as Galatia after them. Now,
at long last, almost fifty years after Alexander's death, some sort of order
was restored. Ptolemy ruled over Egypt, southern Syria (known as Coele-Syria),
and various territories on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Antiochus ruled
the vast Asian territories of the empire, while Macedon and Greece (with the
exception of the Aetolian League) fell to Antigonus.
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The Diadochi were the rival generals, families, and friends of
Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in
323
Successors An army on campaign changes its leadership at any level frequently
for replacement of casualties and distribution of talent to the current
operations. The institution of the companion cavalry or "Hetairoi"
(Ancient Greek: ?ta????) gave the ancient Macedonian army a flexible capability
in this regard. There were no fixed ranks of Hetairoi except as the term meant
a special unit of cavalry. The Hetairoi were simply a fixed pool of de facto
general officers, without any or with changing de jure rank, whom Alexander
could assign where needed. They were typically from the nobility, many related
to Alexander. A parallel flexible structure in the Achaemenid army facilitated
combined units. Staff meetings to adjust command structure were nearly a daily
event in Alexander's army. They created an ongoing expectation among the
Hetairoi of receiving an important and powerful command, if only for a short
term. At the moment of Alexander's death, all possibilities were suddenly
suspended. The Hetairoi vanished with Alexander, to be replaced instantaneously
by the Diadochi, men who knew where they had stood, but not where they would
stand now. As there had been no definite ranks or positions of Hetairoi, there
were no ranks of Diadochi. They expected appointments, but without Alexander
they would have to make their own. For purposes of this presentation, the
Diadochi are grouped by their rank and social standing at the time of
Alexander's death. These were their initial positions as Diadochi. They are not
necessarily significant or determinative of what happened next. Craterus Main
article: Craterus Craterus was an infantry and naval commander under Alexander
during his conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. After the revolt of his army at
Opis on the Tigris in 324, Alexander ordered Craterus to command the veterans
as they returned home to Macedonia. Antipater, commander of Alexander's forces
in Greece and regent of the Macedonian throne in Alexander's absence, would
lead a force of fresh troops back to Persia to join Alexander while Craterus
would become regent in his place. When Craterus arrived at Cilicia in 323 ,
news reached him of Alexander's death. Though his distance from Babylon
prevented him from participating in the distribution of power, Craterus
hastened to Macedonia to assume the protection of Alexander's family. The news
of Alexander's death caused the Greeks to rebel in the Lamian War. Craterus and
Antipater defeated the rebellion in 322 . Despite his absence, the generals
gathered at Babylon confirmed Craterus as Guardian of the Royal Family.
However, with the royal family in Babylon, the Regent Perdiccas assumed this
responsibility until the royal household could return to Macedonia. Antipater
Main article: Antipater Antipater was an adviser to King Philip II, Alexander's
father, a role he continued under Alexander. When Alexander left Macedon to
conquer Persia in 334 , Antipater was named Regent of Macedon and General of
Greece in Alexander's absence. In 323 , Craterus was ordered by Alexander to
march his veterans back to Macedon and assume Antipater's position while
Antipater was to march to Persia with fresh troops. Alexander's death that
year, however, prevented the order from being carried out. When Alexander's
generals gathered at the Partition of Babylon to divide the empire between
themselves, Antipater was confirmed as General of Greece while the roles of
Regent of the Empire and Guardian of the Royal Family were given to Perdiccas
and Craterus, respectively. Together, the three men formed the top ruling group
of the empire. Somatophylakes Main article: Somatophylakes Further information:
Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus, Peucestas, Peithon, and Leonnatus The
Somatophylakes were the seven bodyguards of Alexander. Macedonian satraps Main
article: Satrap Further information: Antigonus I Monophthalmus, Neoptolemus
(general), Seleucus I Nicator, and Polyperchon Satraps (Old Persian:
xša?rapawn) were the governors of the provinces in the Hellenistic
empires. Royal family Main articles: Philip III of Macedon, Alexander IV of
Macedon, Olympias, Eurydice II of Macedon, and Cleopatra of Macedon
Non-Macedonian satraps and generals Main articles: Eumenes, Pyrrhus of Epirus,
and Philetaerus The Epigoni were the sons of the Argive heroes who had fought
in the first Theban war.
. Chronology Struggle for unity (323–319 ) Partition of Babylon Main
article: Partition of Babylon The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian
Empire after the Settlement in Babylon (323 ). Without a chosen successor,
there was almost immediately a dispute among Alexander's generals as to who his
successor should be. Meleager and the infantry supported the candidacy of
Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas, the leading cavalry
commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's unborn child by
Roxana. A compromise was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should
become King, and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was
a boy (as it was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become Regent
of the entire Empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had
Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The
other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the
partition of Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the Empire.
Ptolemy received Egypt; Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia; Philotas took
Cilicia; Peithon took Media; Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia;
Asander received Caria; Menander received Lydia; Lysimachus received Thrace;
Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia; and Neoptolemus had Armenia[citation
needed]. Macedon and the rest of Greece were to be under the joint rule of
Antipater, who had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most
able lieutenant, while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to
receive Cappadocia and Paphlagonia. In the east, Perdiccas largely left
Alexander's arrangements intact – Taxiles and Porus governed over their
kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes governed Gandara;
Sibyrtius governed Arachosia and Gedrosia; Stasanor governed Aria and
Drangiana; Philip governed Bactria and Sogdia; Phrataphernes governed Parthia
and Hyrcania; Peucestas governed Persis; Tlepolemus had charge over Carmania;
Atropates governed northern Media; Archon got Babylonia; and Arcesilaus
governed northern Mesopotamia. Revolt in Greece Main article: Lamian War
Meanwhile, the news of Alexander's death had inspired a revolt in Greece, known
as the Lamian War. Athens and other cities joined together, ultimately
besieging Antipater in the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a force
sent by Leonnatus, who was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end
until Craterus's arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of
Crannon on September 5, 322 . For a time, this brought an end to any resistance
to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek
settlers in the eastern parts of the Empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued
Cappadocia. First War of the Diadochi (322–320 ) Paintings of ancient
Macedonian soldiers, arms, and armaments, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios,
Thessaloniki in Greece, 4th century Soon, however, conflict broke out.
Perdiccas' marriage to Alexander's sister Cleopatra led Antipater, Craterus,
Antigonus, and Ptolemy to join together in rebellion. The actual outbreak of
war was initiated by Ptolemy's theft of Alexander's body and its transfer to
Egypt. Although Eumenes defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, in a battle at which
Craterus was killed, it was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered
by his own generals Peithon, Seleucus, and Antigenes during an invasion of
Egypt. Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and
Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with
Antipater at the Partition of Triparadisus. Antipater was made regent of the
Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus remained in charge
of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was added Lycaonia. Ptolemy retained
Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the three murderers of
Perdiccas—Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes—were given the provinces
of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former Regent,
received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was charged with the task of rooting
out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In effect, Antipater retained for
himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as leader of the largest army east
of the Hellespont, held a similar position in Asia. Partition of Triparadisus
Main article: Partition of Triparadisus Death of Antipater Soon after the
second partition, in 319 , Antipater died. Antipater had been one of the few
remaining individuals with enough prestige to hold the empire together. After
his death, war soon broke out again and the fragmentation of the empire began
in earnest. Passing over his own son, Cassander, Antipater had declared
Polyperchon his successor as Regent. A civil war soon broke out in Macedon and
Greece between Polyperchon and Cassander, with the latter supported by
Antigonus and Ptolemy. Polyperchon allied himself to Eumenes in Asia, but was
driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and fled to Epirus with the infant king
Alexander IV and his mother Roxana. In Epirus he joined forces with Olympias,
Alexander's mother, and together they invaded Macedon again. They were met by
an army commanded by King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice, which
immediately defected, leaving the king and Eurydice to Olympias's not so tender
mercies, and they were killed (317 ). Soon after, though, the tide turned, and
Cassander was victorious, capturing and killing Olympias, and attaining control
of Macedon, the boy king, and his mother. Wars of the Diadochi (319–275 )
Main article: Wars of the Diadochi The Wars of the Diadochi were a series of
conflicts, fought between 322 and 275 , over the rule of Alexander's empire
after his death. In 310 Cassander secretly murdered Alexander IV and Roxana.
The Battle of Ipsus (301 ) The Battle of Ipsus at the end of the Fourth War of
the Diadochi finalized the breakup of the unified Empire of Alexander.
Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon were pitted
against the coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander, ruler
of Macedon; Lysimachus, ruler of Thrace; and Seleucus I Nicator, ruler of
Babylonia and Persia. Antigonus was killed, but his son Demetrius took a large
part of Macedonia and continued his father's dynasty. After the death of
Cassander and Lysimachus, following one another in fairly rapid succession, the
Ptolemies and Seleucids controlled the vast majority of Alexander's former
empire, with a much smaller segment controlled by the Antigonid dynasty until
the 1st century. The Epigoni Kingdoms of the Diadochi (275–30 ) Main
article: Hellenistic period Decline and fall Main article: Hellenistic period
This division was to last for a century, before the Antigonid Kingdom finally
fell to Rome, and the Seleucids were harried from Persia by the Parthians and
forced by the Romans to relinquish control in Asia Minor. A rump Seleucid
kingdom limped on in Syria until finally put to rest by Pompey in 64 . The
Ptolemies lasted longer in Alexandria, though as a client under Rome. Egypt was
finally annexed to Rome in 30 . Background Ancient role In ancient Greek,
diadochos[2] is a noun (substantive or adjective) formed from the verb,
diadechesthai, "succeed to,"[3] a compound of dia- and dechesthai,
"receive."[4] The word-set descends straightforwardly from
Indo-European *dek-, "receive", the substantive forms being from the
o-grade, *dok-.[5] Some important English reflexes are dogma, "a received
teaching," decent, "fit to be received," paradox, "against
that which is received." The prefix dia- changes the meaning slightly to
add a social expectation to the received. The diadochos expects to receive it,
hence a successor in command or any other office, or a succeeding work gang on
work being performed by relays of work gangs, or metaphorically light being the
successor of sleep. Basileus It was exactly this expectation that contributed
to strife in the Alexandrine and Hellenistic Ages, beginning with Alexander.
Philip had made a state marriage to a woman who changed her name to Olympias to
honor the coincidence of Philip's victory in the Olympic Games and Alexander's
birth, an act that suggests love may have been a motive as well. Macedon was
then an obscure state. Its chief office was the basileia, or monarchy, the
chief officer being the basileus, now the signatory title of Philip. Their son
and heir, Alexander, was raised with care, being educated by select prominent
philosophers. Philip is said to have wept for joy when Alexander performed a
feat of which no one else was capable, taming the wild horse, Bucephalus, at
his first attempt in front of a skeptical audience including the king. Amidst
the cheering onlookers Philip swore that Macedonia was not large enough for
Alexander.[6] When Philip was on campaign Alexander would lament at the report
of each victory that his father would leave him nothing of note to do. And yet
the faithless king fell in love with a young woman, Cleopatra. He married her
apparently for love when he was too old for marriage, having divorced Olympias.
By that time Philip had built Macedonia into the leading military state of the
Balkans. He had acquired his expertise fighting for Thebes and Greek freedom
under his patron, Epaminondas. When Alexander was a teen-ager, Philip was
planning a military solution to the contention with the Persian Empire. In the
opening campaign against Byzantium he made Alexander "regent"
(kurios) in his absence. Alexander used every opportunity to further his
father's victories, expecting that he would be a part of them. There was a
source of disaffection, however. Plutarch reports that Alexander and his mother
bitterly reproached him for his numerous affairs among the women of his
court.[7] Alexander was at the wedding banquet when Attalus, Cleopatra's uncle,
made a remark that seemed inappropriate to him. He asked the Macedonians to
pray for an "heir to the kingship" (diadochon tes basileias). Rising
to his feet Alexander shouted, using the royal "we," "Do we seem
like bastards (nothoi) to you, evil-minded man?" and threw a cup at him.
The inebriated Philip, rising to his feet, drawing his sword, presumably to
defend his wife's uncle, promptly fell. Making a comment that the man who was
preparing to cross from Europe to Asia could not cross from one couch to
another, Alexander departed, to escort his mother to her native Epirus and to
wait himself in Illyria. Not long after, prompted by Demaratus the Corinthian
to mend the dissension in his house, Philip sent Demaratus to bring Alexander
home. The expectation by virtue of which Alexander was diadochos was that as
the son of Philip, he would inherit Philip's throne. After a time the king was
assassinated. In 336 , at the age of 20, Alexander "received the
kingship" (parelabe ten basileian).[8] In the same year Darius succeeded
to the throne of Persia as Šâhe Šâhân, "King
of Kings," which the Greeks understood as "Great King." The role
of the Macedonian basileus was changing fast. Alexander's army was already
multinational. Alexander was acquiring dominion over state after state. His
presence on the battlefield seemed to ensure immediate victory. Hegemon Main
article: Wars of Alexander the Great When Alexander the Great died on June 10,
323 , he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent
territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of Macedon itself,
along with the Greek city-states that his father had subdued, to Bactria and
parts of India in the east. It included parts of the present day Balkans,
Anatolia, the Levant, Egypt, Babylonia, and most of the former Achaemenid
Empire, except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in Central Asia.
Historical uses as a title Aulic In the formal "court" titulature of
the Hellenistic empires ruled by dynasties we know as Diadochs, the title was
not customary for the Monarch, but has actually been proven to be the lowest in
a system of official rank titles, known as Aulic titulature, conferred –
ex officio or nominatim – to actual courtiers and as an honorary rank (for
protocol) to various military and civilian officials. Notably in the Ptolemaic
Kingdom, it was reported as the lowest aulic rank, under Philos, during the
reign of Ptolemy V Epiphanes. Modern concept Diadochi (???d????) is an ancient
Greek word that currently modern scholars use to refer primarily to persons
acting a role that existed only for a limited time period and within a limited
geographic range. As there are no modern equivalents, it has been necessary to
reconstruct the role from the ancient sources. There is no uniform agreement
concerning exactly which historical persons fit the description, or the
territorial range over which the role was in effect, or the calendar dates of
the period. A certain basic meaning is included in all definitions, however.
The New Latin terminology was introduced by the historians of universal Greek
history of the 19th century. Their comprehensive histories of ancient Greece
typically covering from prehistory to the Roman Empire ran into many volumes.
For example, George Grote in the first edition of History of Greece,
1846–1856, hardly mentions the Diadochi, except to say that they were
kings who came after Alexander and Hellenized Asia. In the edition of 1869 he
defines them as "great officers of Alexander, who after his death carved
kingdoms for themselves out of his conquests."[9] Grote cites no
references for the use of Diadochi but his criticism of Johann Gustav Droysen
gives him away. Droysen, "the modern inventor of Hellenistic
history,"[10] not only defined "Hellenistic period"
(hellenistische ... Zeit),[11] but in a further study of the "successors
of Alexander" (nachfolger Alexanders) dated 1836, after Grote had begun
work on his history, but ten years before publication of the first volume,
divided it into two periods, "the age of the Diadochi," or
"Diadochi Period" (die Zeit der Diodochen or Diadochenzeit), which
ran from the death of Alexander to the end of the "Diadochi Wars"
(Diadochenkämpfe, his term), about 278 , and the "Epigoni
Period" (Epigonenzeit), which ran to about 220 .[12] He also called the
Diadochi Period "the Diadochi War Period" (Zeit der
Diadochenkämpfe). The Epigoni he defined as "Sons of the
Diadochi" (Diadochensöhne). These were the second generation of
Diadochi rulers.[13] In an 1843 work, "History of the Epigoni"
(Geschichte der Epigonen) he details the kingdoms of the Epigoni, 280-239 . The
only precise date is the first, the date of Alexander's death, June, 323 . It
has never been in question. Grote uses Droysen's terminology but gives him no
credit for it. Instead he attacks Droysen's concept of Alexander planting
Hellenism in eastern colonies:[14] "Plutarch states that Alexander founded
more than seventy new cities in Asia. So large a number of them is neither
verifiable nor probable, unless we either reckon up simple military posts or
borrow from the list of foundations really established by his successors."
He avoids Droysen's term in favor of the traditional "successor". In
a long note he attacks Droysen's thesis as "altogether slender and
unsatisfactory." Grote may have been right, but he ignores entirely
Droysen's main thesis, that the concepts of "successors" and
"sons of successors" were innovated and perpetuated by historians
writing contemporaneously or nearly so with the period. Not enough evidence
survives to prove it conclusively, but enough survives to win acceptance for
Droysen as the founding father of Hellenistic history. M. M. Austin localizes
what he considers to be a problem with Grote's view. To Grote's assertion in
the Preface to his work that the period "is of no interest in
itself," but serves only to elucidate "the preceding centuries,"
Austin comments "Few nowadays would subscribe to this view."[10] If
Grote was hoping to minimize Droysen by not giving him credit, he was mistaken,
as Droysen's gradually became the majority model. By 1898 Adolf Holm
incorporated a footnote describing and evaluating Droysen's arguments.[15] He
describes the Diadochi and Epigoni as "powerful individuals."[16] The
title of the volume on the topic, however, is The Graeco-Macedonian Age..., not
Droysen's "Hellenistic". Droysen's "Hellenistic" and
"Diadochi Periods" are canonical today. A series of six (as of 2014)
international symposia held at different universities 1997–2010 on the
topics of the imperial Macedonians and their Diadochi have to a large degree
solidified and internationalized Droysen's concepts. Each one grew out of the
previous. Each published an assortment of papers read at the symposium.[17] The
2010 symposium, entitled "The Time of the Diadochi (323-281 )," held
at the University of A Coruña, Spain, represents the current concepts
and investigations. The term Diadochi as an adjective is being extended beyond
its original use, such as "Diadochi Chronicle," which is nowhere
identified as such, or Diadochi kingdoms, "the kingdoms that
emerged," even past the Age of the Epigoni.[18]
The Wars of the Diadochi mark the beginning of the Hellenistic period from the
Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River ValleyThe Diadochi Main articles:
Diadochi, Wars of the Diadochi, and Partition of Babylon Further information:
History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom) The distribution of satrapies in the
Macedonian Empire after the Settlement in Babylon (323 BC). When Alexander the
Great died (10 June 323 BC), he left behind a huge empire which was composed of
many essentially autonomous territories called satraps. Without a chosen
successor there were immediate disputes among his generals as to who should be
king of Macedon. These generals became known as the Diadochi (Greek: ???d????,
Diadokhoi, meaning "Successors"). Meleager and the infantry supported
the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, while Perdiccas,
the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander's
child by Roxana. After the infantry stormed the palace of Babylon, a compromise
was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become king, and should
rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was,
becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become regent (epimeletes) of
the empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager
and the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control.[15] The
generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of Babylon
by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire, but Perdiccas' position
was shaky, because, as Arrian writes, "everyone was suspicious of him, and
he of them".[16] The first of the Diadochi wars broke out when Perdiccas
planned to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra and began to question Antigonus I
Monophthalmus' leadership in Asia Minor. Antigonus fled for Greece, and then,
together with Antipater and Craterus (the satrap of Cilicia who had been in
Greece fighting the Lamian war) invaded Anatolia. The rebels were supported by
Lysimachus, the satrap of Thrace and Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt. Although
Eumenes, satrap of Cappadocia, defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, Perdiccas
himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon, Seleucus, and Antigenes
(possibly with Ptolemy's aid) during his invasion of Egypt (c.?21 May to 19
June, 320 BC).[17] Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making
Peithon and Arrhidaeus regents in his place, but soon these came to a new
agreement with Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. Antipater was made
regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus
remained in charge of Asia Minor, Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained
Thrace and Seleucus I controlled Babylon. The second Diadochi war began
following the death of Antipater in 319 BC. Passing over his own son,
Cassander, Antipater had declared Polyperchon his successor as Regent.
Cassander rose in revolt against Polyperchon (who was joined by Eumenes) and
was supported by Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy. In 317 BC, Cassander
invaded Macedonia, attaining control of Macedon, sentencing Olympias to death
and capturing the boy king Alexander IV, and his mother. In Asia, Eumenes was
betrayed by his own men after years of campaign and was given up to Antigonus
who had him executed. The Kingdoms of Antigonos and his rivals c.?303 BC. The
third war of the Diadochi broke out because of the growing power and ambition
of Antigonus. He began removing and appointing satraps as if he were king and
also raided the royal treasuries in Ecbatana, Persepolis and Susa, making off
with 25,000 talents.[18] Seleucus was forced to flee to Egypt and Antigonus was
soon at war with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander. He then invaded Phoenicia,
laid siege to Tyre, stormed Gaza and began building a fleet. Ptolemy invaded
Syria and defeated Antigonus' son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, in the Battle of Gaza
of 312 BC which allowed Seleucus to secure control of Babylonia, and the
eastern satrapies. In 310 BC, Cassander had young King Alexander IV and his
mother Roxana murdered, ending the Argead Dynasty which had ruled Macedon for
several centuries. Antigonus then sent his son Demetrius to regain control of
Greece. In 307 BC he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's
governor, and proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius now turned his
attention to Ptolemy, defeating his fleet at the Battle of Salamis and taking
control of Cyprus. In the aftermath of this victory, Antigonus took the title
of king (basileus) and bestowed it on his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, the rest
of the Diadochi soon followed suit.[19] Demetrius continued his campaigns by
laying siege to Rhodes and conquering most of Greece in 302 BC, creating a
league against Cassander's Macedon. The decisive engagement of the war came
when Lysimachus invaded and overran much of western Anatolia, but was soon
isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus in Phrygia. Seleucus arrived in
time to save Lysimachus and utterly crushed Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus in
301 BC. Seleucus' war elephants proved decisive, Antigonus was killed, and
Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve the remnants of his rule
there by recapturing a rebellious Athens. Meanwhile, Lysimachus took over
Ionia, Seleucus took Cilicia, and Ptolemy captured Cyprus. Kingdoms of the
Diadochi after the battle of Ipsus, c.?301 BC. Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
Kingdom of Cassander Kingdom of Lysimachus Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator After
Cassander's death in c.?298 BC, however, Demetrius, who still maintained a
sizable loyal army and fleet, invaded Macedon, seized the Macedonian throne
(294 BC) and conquered Thessaly and most of central Greece (293–291
BC).[20] He was defeated in 288 BC when Lysimachus of Thrace and Pyrrhus of
Epirus invaded Macedon on two fronts, and quickly carved up the kingdom for
themselves. Demetrius fled to central Greece with his mercenaries and began to
build support there and in the northern Peloponnese. He once again laid siege
to Athens after they turned on him, but then struck a treaty with the Athenians
and Ptolemy, which allowed him to cross over to Asia Minor and wage war on
Lysimachus' holdings in Ionia, leaving his son Antigonus Gonatas in Greece.
After initial successes, he was forced to surrender to Seleucus in 285 BC and
later died in captivity.[21] Lysimachus, who had seized Macedon and Thessaly
for himself, was forced into war when Seleucus invaded his territories in Asia
Minor and was defeated and killed in 281 BC at the Battle of Corupedium, near
Sardis. Seleucus then attempted to conquer Lysimachus' European territories in
Thrace and Macedon, but he was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus ("the
thunderbolt"), who had taken refuge at the Seleucid court and then had
himself acclaimed as king of Macedon. Ptolemy was killed when Macedon was
invaded by Gauls in 279 BC—his head stuck on a spear—and the country
fell into anarchy. Antigonus II Gonatas invaded Thrace in the summer of 277 and
defeated a large force of 18,000 Gauls. He was quickly hailed as king of
Macedon and went on to rule for 35 years.[22] At this point the tripartite
territorial division of the Hellenistic age was in place, with the main
Hellenistic powers being Macedon under Demetrius's son Antigonus II Gonatas,
the Ptolemaic kingdom under the aged Ptolemy I and the Seleucid empire under
Seleucus' son Antiochus I Soter.
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