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The Wars of the Diadochi or Wars of
Alexander's Successors, were a series of conflicts fought between Alexander the
Great's generals over the rule of his vast empire after his death. They
occurred between 322 and 281.
Opponents: 322–320: Antipatrid Dynasty versus Antigonid Dynasty versus
Ptolemaic Dynasty 322–320: Perdiccas's faction 319–315: Antigonid
Dynasty Antipatrid Dynasty Ptolemaic Dynasty Thrace 319–315: Polyperchon's
faction Epirus 314–312: Antigonid Dynasty Polyperchon 314–312:
Ptolemaic Egypt Antipatrid Macedon Thrace Caria 311–309: Antigonid Dynasty
311–309: Seleucid Empire 308–301: Antigonid Dynasty 308–301:
Ptolemaic Egypt Antipatrid Macedon Thrace Seleucid Empire Commanders and
leaders 322–320: Antipater Craterus † Neoptolemus † Antigonus
Ptolemy 322–320: Perdiccas Executed Antigenes Seleucus Peithon Eumenes
319–315: Antigonus Demitrius Peithon Seleucus Cassander Phillip III
Executed Ptolemy Lysimachus 319–315: Polyperchon Eumenes Executed
Peucestas Eudamus Executed Antigenes Executed Olympias Executed Aeacides of
Epirus † 314–312: Antigonus Demitrius Ptolemaus Aristodemus
Polyperchon 314–312: Ptolemy Seleucus Cassander Lysimachus Asander
311–309: Antigonus Demitrius 311–309: Seleucus 308–301:
Antigonus † Demitrius 308–301: Ptolemy Cassander Lysimachus Seleucus
Background:
Main article:
Partition of Babylon:
On June 10, 323 , Alexander the Great died, leaving behind a huge empire
stretching from Greece and Macedon in Europe to the Indus valley in India. His
death left the Macedonians in a very difficult position. The ruthlessness of
Philip and Alexander toward possible rivals had left the Empire without a clear
and competent successor. The Argead family was reduced to Alexander's mentally
defective half-brother Arrhidaeus, his yet unborn son Alexander IV, and his
reputed illegitimate son Heracles, a mere child, and the women of the family,
his mother Olympias, his sister Cleopatra, and his half-sisters Thessalonice
and Cynane. Without a chosen successor, there was almost immediately a dispute
among his generals as to whom his successor should be. Meleager and the
infantry supported the candidacy of Alexander's half-brother, Arrhidaeus, while
Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of
Alexander's unborn child by Roxana.
A compromise was arranged – Arrhidaeus (as Philip III) should become king,
and should rule jointly with Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it
was, becoming Alexander IV). Perdiccas himself would become regent of the
empire, and Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager and
the other infantry leaders murdered, and assumed full control. The other
cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the partition of
Babylon by becoming satraps of the various parts of the empire.
Ptolemy received Egypt;
Laomedon received Syria and Phoenicia;
Philotas took Cilicia;
Peithon took Media;
Antigonus received Phrygia, Lycia and Pamphylia;
Asander received Caria;
Menander received Lydia;
Lysimachus received Thrace;
Leonnatus received Hellespontine Phrygia;
and Neoptolemus had Armenia.
Macedon and the rest of Greece were to be under the joint rule of Antipater,
who had governed them for Alexander, and Craterus, Alexander's most-able
lieutenant,
while Alexander's old secretary, Eumenes of Cardia, was to receive Cappadocia
and Paphlagonia.
In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexander's arrangements intact
– Taxiles and Porus ruled over their kingdoms in India;
Alexander's father-in-law Oxyartes ruled Gandara;
Sibyrtius ruled Arachosia and Gedrosia;
Stasanor ruled Aria and Drangiana;
Philip ruled Bactria and Sogdiana;
Phrataphernes ruled Parthia and Hyrcania;
Peucestas governed Persis;
Tlepolemus had charge over Carmania;
Atropates governed northern Media;
Archon got Babylonia;
and Arcesilas ruled northern Mesopotamia.
Lamian War:
Main article: Lamian War:
The news of Alexander's death inspired a revolt in Greece, known as the Lamian
War. Athens and other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in
the fortress of Lamia. Antipater was relieved by a force sent by Leonnatus, who
was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end until Craterus's
arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the Battle of
Crannon on September 5, 322 . For a time,
this brought an end to Greek resistance to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile,
Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers in the eastern parts of the
empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued Cappadocia.
First War of the Diadochi, 322–320:
The distribution of satrapies in the Macedonian empire after the settlement in
Babylon, 323
Eumenes defeating Neoptolemus, in the Battle of the Hellespont (321). Perdiccas
(who was already betrothed to the daughter of Antipater, Nicea) attempted to
marry Alexander's sister, Cleopatra, a marriage which would have given
Perdiccas a claim to the Macedonian throne. Antipater, Craterus and Antigonus
formed a coalition against Perdiccas's growing power. Antipater sent his army
under the command of the Craterus, into Asia Minor.
This was the beginning of the first of the Diadochi Wars. Menander, Asander and
Ptolemy joined them in rebellion against Perdiccas. The actual outbreak of war
was triggered by Ptolemy's theft of Alexander's body, and diversion of it to
Egypt. Although Eumenes defeated Craterus at the battle of the Hellespont, it
was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals
Peithon, Seleucus, and Antigenes during the invasion of Egypt (after a failed
crossing of the Nile).
Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas' murderers, making Peithon and Arrhidaeus
regents in Perdiccas's place, but soon these came to a new agreement with
Antipater at the Treaty of Triparadisus. Antipater was made Regent of the
Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus was made Strategos
of Asia and remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was
added Lycaonia. Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the
three murderers of Perdiccas—Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes—were
given the provinces of Babylonia, Media, and Susiana respectively.
Arrhidaeus, the former regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was
charged with the task of rooting out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In
effect, Antipater retained for himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as
Strategos of the East, held a similar position in Asia. Although the First War
ended with the death of Perdiccas, his cause lived on. Eumenes was still at
large with a victorious army in Asia Minor. So were Alcetas, Attalus, Dokimos
and Polemon who had also gathered their armies in Asia Minor. In 319 Antigonus,
after receiving reinforcements from Antipater's European army, first campaigned
against Eumenes (see: battle of Orkynia), then against the combined forces of
Alcetas, Attalus, Dokimos and Polemon (see: battle of Cretopolis), defeating
them all.
Second War of the Diadochi, 318–315:
Main article: Second War of the Diadochi:
Another war soon broke out between the Diadochi. At the start of 318
Arrhidaios, the governor of Hellespontine Phrygia, tried to take the city of
Cyzicus. Antigonus, as the Strategos of Asia, took this as a challenge to his
authority and recalled his army from their winter quarters. He sent an army
against Arrhidaios while he himself marched with the main army into Lydia
against its governor Cleitus whom he drove out of his province. Cleitus fled to
Macedon and joined Polyperchon, the new Regent of the Empire, who decided to
march his army south to force the Greek cities to side with him against
Cassander and Antigonus. Cassander, reinforced with troops and a fleet by
Antigonus, sailed to Athens and thwarted Polyperchon's efforts to take the
city. From Athens Polyperchon marched on Megalopolis which had sided with
Cassander and besieged the city. The siege failed and he had to retreat losing
a lot of prestige and most of the Greek cities. Eventually Polyperchon
retreated to Epirus with the infant King Alexander IV. There he joined forces
with Alexander's mother Olympias and was able to re-invade Macedon. King Philip
Arrhidaeus, Alexander's half-brother, having defected to Cassander's side at
the prompting of his wife, Eurydice, was forced to flee, only to be captured in
Amphipolis, resulting in the execution of himself and the forced suicide of his
wife, both purportedly at the instigation of Olympias. Cassander rallied once
more, and seized Macedon. Olympias was murdered, and Cassander gained control
of the infant King and his mother. Eventually Cassander became the dominant
power in the European part of the Empire, ruling over Macedon and large parts
of Greece. Meanwhile, Eumenes, who had gathered a small army in Cappadocia, had
entered the coalition of Polyperchon and Olympias. He took his army to the
royal treasury at Kyinda in Cilicia where he used its funds to recruit
mercenaries. He also secured the loyalty of 6,000 of Alexander's veterans, the
Argyraspides (the Silver Shields) and the Hypaspists, who were stationed in
Cilicia.
In the spring of 317 he marched his army to Phoenica and began to raise a naval
force on the behalf of Polyperchon. Antigonus had spent the rest of 318
consolidating his position and gathering a fleet. He now used this fleet (under
the command of Nicanor who had returned from Athens) against Polyperchon's
fleet in the Hellespont. In a two-day battle near Byzantium, Nicanor and
Antigonus destroyed Polyperchon's fleet. Then, after settling his affairs in
western Asia Minor, Antigonus marched against Eumenes at the head of a great
army. Eumenes hurried out of Phoenicia and marched his army east to gather
support in the eastern provinces. In this he was successful, because most of
the eastern satraps joined his cause (when he arrived in Susiana) more than
doubling his army. They marched and counter-marched throughout Mesopotamia,
Babylonia, Susiana and Media until they faced each other on a plain in the
country of the Paraitakene in southern Media. There they fought a great battle
-the battle of Paraitakene- which ended inconclusively. The next year (315)
they fought another great but inconclusive battle -the battle of Gabiene-
during which some of Antigonus's troops plundered the enemy camp. Using this
plunder as a bargaining tool, Antigonus bribed the Argyraspides (Sslver shields
- JS) who arrested and handed over Eumenes. Antigonus had Eumenes and a couple
of his officers executed. With Eumenes's death, the war in the eastern part of
the Empire ended. Antigonus and Cassander had won the war. Antigonus now
controlled Asia Minor and the eastern provinces, Cassander controlled Macedon
and large parts of Greece, Lysimachus controlled Thrace, and Ptolemy controlled
Egypt, Syria, Cyrene and Cyprus. Their enemies were either dead or seriously
reduced in power and influence.
Third War of the Diadochi, 314–311:
Though his authority had seemed secure with his victory over Eumenes, the
eastern dynasts were unwilling to see Antigonus rule all of Asia. In 314 they
demanded from Antigonus that he cede Lycia and Cappadocia to Cassander,
Hellepontine Phrygia to Lysimachus, all of Syria to Ptolemy, and Babylonia to
Seleucus, and that he share the treasures he had captured. Antigonus only
answer was to advise them to be ready, then, for war. In this war, Antigonus
faced an alliance of Ptolemy (with Seleucus serving him), Lysimachus, and
Cassander. At the start of the campaigning season of 314 Antigonus invaded
Syria and Phoenica, which were under Ptolemy's control, and besieged Tyre.
Cassander and Ptolemy started supporting Asander (satrap of Caria) against
Antigonus who ruled the neighbouring provinces of Lycia, Lydia and Greater
Phrygia. Antigonus then sent Aristodemus with 1,000 talents to the Peloponnese
to raise a mercenary army to fight Cassander, he allied himself to Polyperchon,
who still controlled parts of the Peloponnese, and he proclaimed freedom for
the Greeks to get them on their side. He also sent his nephew Ptolemaios with
an army through Cappadocia to the Hellespont to cut Asander off from Lysimachus
and Cassander. Polemaios was successful, securing the northwest of Asia Minor
for Antigonus, even invading Ionia/Lydia and bottling up Asander in Caria, but
he was unable to drive his opponent from his satrapy. Eventually Antigonus
decided to campaign against Asander himself, leaving his oldest son Demetrius
to protect Syria and Phoenica against Ptolemy. Ptolemy and Seleucus invaded
from Egypt and defeated Demetrius in the Battle of Gaza. After the battle,
Seleucus went east and secured control of Babylon (his old satrapy), and then
went on to secure the eastern satrapies of Alexander's empire. Antigonus,
having defeated Asander, sent his nephews Telesphorus and Polemaios to Greece
to fight Cassander, he himself returned to Syria/Phoenica, drove off Ptolemy,
and sent Demetrius east to take care of Seleucus. Although Antigonus now
concluded a compromise peace with Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, he
continued the war with Seleucus, attempting to recover control of the eastern
reaches of the empire. Although he went east himself in 310 , he was unable to
defeat Seleucus (he even lost a battle to Seleucus) and had to give up the
eastern satrapies. At about the same time, Cassander had young King Alexander
IV and his mother Roxane murdered, ending the Argead dynasty, which had ruled
Macedon for several centuries. For the moment, all of the various generals
continued to recognize the dead Alexander as king, since Cassander did not
publicly announce the deaths, but it seemed clear that at some point, one or
all of them would claim the kingship.
At the end of the war there were five Diadochi left: Cassander ruling Macedon
and Thessaly, Lysimachus ruling Thrace, Antigonus ruling Asia Minor, Syria and
Phoenicia, Seleucus ruling the eastern provinces and Ptolemy ruling Egypt and
Cyprus. Each of them ruled as kings (in all but name).
Babylonian War, 311–309:
Main article: Babylonian War
The Babylonian War was a conflict fought between 311–309 between the
Diadochi kings Antigonus I Monophthalmus and Seleucus I Nicator, ending in a
victory for the latter, Seleucus I Nicator. The conflict ended any possibility
of restoration of the empire of Alexander the Great, a result confirmed in the
Battle of Ipsus.
Fourth War of the Diadochi, 308–301:
Kingdoms of the Diadochi after the Battle of Ipsus, c.?301.
Kingdom of Ptolemy I Soter
Kingdom of Cassander
Kingdom of Lysimachus
Kingdom of Seleucus I Nicator Epirus
War soon broke out again. Ptolemy had been expanding his power into the Aegean
and to Cyprus, while Seleucus went on a tour of the east to consolidate his
control of the vast eastern territories of Alexander's empire. Antigonus
resumed the war, sending his son Demetrius to regain control of Greece. In 307
he took Athens, expelling Demetrius of Phaleron, Cassander's governor, and
proclaiming the city free again. Demetrius now turned his attention to Ptolemy,
invading Cyprus and defeating Ptolemy's fleet at the Battle of Salamis. In the
aftermath of this victory, Antigonus and Demetrius both assumed the crown, and
they were shortly followed by Ptolemy, Seleucus, Lysimachus, and eventually
Cassander. In 306, Antigonus attempted to invade Egypt, but storms prevented
Demetrius' fleet from supplying him, and he was forced to return home. Now,
with Cassander and Ptolemy both weakened, and Seleucus still occupied in the
East, Antigonus and Demetrius turned their attention to Rhodes, which was
besieged by Demetrius's forces in 305 . The island was reinforced by troops
from Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander.
Ultimately, the Rhodians reached a compromise with Demetrius – they would
support Antigonus and Demetrius against all enemies, save their great ally
Ptolemy. Ptolemy took the title of Soter ("Savior") for his role in
preventing the fall of Rhodes, but the victory was ultimately Demetrius', as it
left him with a free hand to attack Cassander in Greece. Demetrius returned to
Greece, defeated Cassander, and formed a new Hellenic League, with himself as
general, to defend the Greek cities against all enemies (and particularly
Cassander). In the face of these catastrophes, Cassander sued for peace, but
Antigonus rejected the claims, and Demetrius invaded Thessaly, where he and
Cassander battled in inconclusive engagements. But now Cassander called in aid
from his allies, and Anatolia was invaded by Lysimachus, forcing Demetrius to
leave Thessaly and send his armies to Asia Minor to assist his father. With
assistance from Cassander, Lysimachus overran much of western Anatolia, but was
soon (301 ) isolated by Antigonus and Demetrius near Ipsus. Here came the
decisive intervention from Seleucus, who arrived in time to save Lysimachus
from disaster and utterly crush Antigonus at the Battle of Ipsus. Antigonus was
killed in the fight, and Demetrius fled back to Greece to attempt to preserve
the remnants of his rule there. Lysimachus and Seleucus divided up Antigonus's
Asian territories between them, with Lysimachus receiving western Asia Minor
and Seleucus the rest, except Cilicia and Lycia, which went to Cassander's
brother Pleistarchus.
The struggle over Macedon, 298–285:
The events of the next decade and a half were centered around various intrigues
for control of Macedon itself. Cassander died in 298 , and his sons, Antipater
and Alexander, proved weaklings. After quarreling with his older brother,
Alexander V called in Demetrius, who had retained control of Cyprus, the
Peloponnese, and many of the Aegean islands, and had quickly seized control of
Cilicia and Lycia from Cassander's brother, as well as Pyrrhus, the King of
Epirus. After Pyrrhus had intervened to seize the border region of Ambracia,
Demetrius invaded, killed Alexander, and seized control of Macedon for himself
(294 ). While Demetrius consolidated his control of mainland Greece, his
outlying territories were invaded and captured by Lysimachus (who recovered
western Anatolia), Seleucus (who took most of Cilicia), and Ptolemy (who
recovered Cyprus, eastern Cilicia, and Lycia). Soon, Demetrius was forced from
Macedon by a rebellion supported by the alliance of Lysimachus and Pyrrhus, who
divided the Kingdom between them, and, leaving Greece to the control of his
son, Antigonus Gonatas, Demetrius launched an invasion of the east in 287.
Although initially successful, Demetrius was ultimately captured by Seleucus in
286, drinking himself to death two years later. The struggle of Lysimachus and
Seleucus, 285–281 Although Lysimachus and Pyrrhus had cooperated in
driving Antigonus Gonatas from Thessaly and Athens, in the wake of Demetrius's
capture they soon fell out, with Lysimachus driving Pyrrhus from his share of
Macedon.
Dynastic struggles also rent Egypt, where Ptolemy decided to make his younger
son Ptolemy Philadelphus his heir rather than the elder, Ptolemy Ceraunus.
Ceraunus fled to Seleucus. The eldest Ptolemy died peacefully in his bed in282
, and Philadelphus succeeded him. Soon Lysimachus made the fatal mistake of
having his son Agathocles murdered at the say-so of his second wife, Arsinoe
(282 ). Agathocles's widow, Lysandra, fled to Seleucus, who now made war upon
Lysimachus. Seleucus, after appointing his son Antiochus ruler of his Asian
territories, defeated and killed Lysimachus at the Battle of Corupedium in
Lydia in 281, but Seleucus did not live to enjoy his triumph for long – he
was almost immediately murdered by Ptolemy Ceraunus, for reasons that remain
unclear. The Gallic invasions and consolidation, 280–275
Ptolemy Ceraunus was also not to enjoy the rule of Macedon for very long. The
death of Lysimachus had left the Danube border of the Macedonian kingdom open
to barbarian invasions, and soon tribes of Gauls were rampaging through Macedon
and Greece, and invading Asia Minor. Ptolemy Ceraunus was killed by the
invaders, and after several years of chaos, Demetrius's son Antigonus Gonatas
emerged as ruler of Macedon. In Asia, Seleucus's son, Antiochus I, also managed
to defeat the Celtic invaders, who settled down in central Anatolia in the part
of eastern Phrygia that would henceforward be known as Galatia after them. Now,
at long last, almost fifty years after Alexander's death, some sort of order
was restored. Ptolemy ruled over Egypt, southern Syria (known as Coele-Syria),
and various territories on the southern coast of Asia Minor. Antiochus ruled
the vast Asian territories of the empire, while Macedon and Greece (with the
exception of the Aetolian League) fell to Antigonus.
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