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The Spartan army stood at the center of the
Spartan state, citizens trained in the disciplines and honor of a warrior
society.[1] Subject to military drill from early manhood, the Spartans became
one of the most feared military forces in the Greek world. At the height of
Sparta's power – between the 6th and 4th centuries BC – it was
commonly accepted by other Greeks that "one Spartan was worth several men
of any other state".[1] According to Thucydides, the famous moment of
Spartan surrender on the island of Sphacteria, off Pylos, in 425 BC, was highly
unexpected. He wrote that "it was the common perception at the time that
Spartans would never lay down their weapons for any reason, be it hunger, or
danger." Tradition states that the semi-mythical Spartan legislator
Lycurgus first founded the iconic army.[2] Referring to Sparta as having a
"wall of men, instead of bricks", he proposed to reform Spartan
society to develop a military-focused lifestyle in accordance with "proper
virtues" such as equality for the male citizens, austerity, strength, and
fitness. A Spartan male's involvement with the army began in infancy when he
was inspected by the Gerousia. Any baby judged weak or deformed was left at
Mount Taygetus to die, since the world of the Spartans was no place for those
who could not fend for themselves. (The practice of discarding children at
birth took place in Athens as well.) Those deemed strong entered the agoge
regime at the age of seven. Under the agoge the young boys or Spartiates
underwent intense and rigorous military training.[3] Their education focused
primarily on cunning, sports and war tactics, but also included poetry, music,
academics, and sometimes politics. Those who passed the agoge by the age of 30
achieved full Spartan citizenship. The term "spartan" became in
modern times synonymous with simplicity by design.[4] During classical times
Lacedaemonian or Laconian was used for attribution, referring to the region of
the polis instead of one of the decentralized settlements called Sparta. From
this derives the already ancient term "laconic" such as in laconic
phrase or laconophilia.
History Mycenaean age Further information: Mycenaean Greece The first reference
to the Spartans at war is in the Iliad, in which they featured among the other
Greek contingents. Like the rest of the Mycenaean-era armies, it was depicted
as composed largely of infantry, equipped with short swords, spears, and
Dipylon-type ("8"-shaped simple round bronze shields). This was the
Golden Age of Warfare. Each opposing army tried to fight through the other line
on the right (strong or deep) side and then turn left; wherefore they would be
able to attack the vulnerable flank. When this happened, it as a rule caused
the army to be routed. The fleeing enemy were put to the sword only as far as
the field of battle extended. The outcome of this one battle would determine
the outcome of a particular issue. In the Golden Age of War defeated armies
were not massacred; they fled back to their city and conceded superiority to
the victors. It wasn't until after the Peloponnesus War that indiscriminate
slaughter, enslavement and depredations were countenanced among the
Greeks.[citation needed] War chariots were used by the elite, but unlike their
counterparts in the Middle East, they appear to have been used for transport,
with the warrior dismounting to fight on foot and then remounting to withdraw
from combat, although some accounts show warriors throwing their spear from the
chariot before dismounting.[5] Archaic Age and expansion Marble statue of a
helmed hoplite (5th century BC), possibly Leonidas (Archaeological Museum of
Sparta, Greece) Mycenaean Sparta, like much of Greece, was engulfed in the
Dorian invasions, which ended the Mycenaean civilization and ushered in the
so-called "Greek Dark Ages". During this time, Sparta (or Lacedaemon)
was merely a Doric village on the banks of the river Eurotas in Laconia.
However, in the early 8th century BC, Spartan society was transformed. The
reforms, which were ascribed by later tradition to the possibly mythical figure
of Lycurgus, created new institutions and established the military nature of
the Spartan state.[6] This "constitution of Lycurgus" remained
essentially unchanged for five centuries.[6] From c. 750 BC, Sparta embarked on
a steady expansion, first by subduing Amyclae and the other settlements of
Laconia, and later, in the First Messenian War, conquering the fertile country
of Messenia. By the beginning of the 7th century BC, Sparta was, along with
Argos, the dominant power in the Peloponnese. Establishment of Spartan hegemony
over the Peloponnese Inevitably, these two powers collided. Initial Argive
successes, such as the victory at the Battle of Hysiae in 669 BC, led to an
uprising of the Messenians, which tied down the Spartan army for almost 20
years.[7] Over the course of the 6th century, Sparta secured her control of the
Peloponnese peninsula: Arcadia was forced to recognize Spartan overlordship;
Argos lost Cynuria (the SE coast of the Peloponnese) in about 546 and suffered
a further crippling blow from Cleomenes I at the Battle of Sepeia in 494, while
repeated expeditions against tyrannical regimes throughout Greece greatly
raised their prestige.[8] By the early 5th century, Sparta was the unchallenged
master in southern Greece, as the leading power (hegemon) of the newly
established Peloponnesian League (which was more characteristically known to
its contemporaries as "the Lacedaemonians and their allies").[9]
Persian and Peloponnesian Wars Greek hoplite besting a Persian, on the tondo of
a kylix drinking cup from the 5th century BC (National Archaeological Museum of
Athens) By the late 6th century BC, Sparta was recognized as the preeminent
Greek city-state. King Croesus of Lydia established an alliance with the
Spartans,[10] and later, the Greek cities of Asia Minor appealed to them for
help during the Ionian Revolt.[10] In the second Persian invasion of Greece,
under Xerxes, Sparta was assigned the overall leadership of Greek forces on
land and at sea. The Spartans played a crucial role in the repulsion of the
invasion, notably at the battles of Thermopylae and Plataea. In the aftermath,
however, due to the plottings of Pausanias with the Persians and their
unwillingness to campaign too far from home, the Spartans withdrew into a
relative isolation, leaving the rising power of Athens to lead the continued
effort against the Persians. This isolationist tendency was further reinforced
by the revolts of some of her allies and a great earthquake in 464, which was
followed by a large scale revolt of the Messenian helots.[8] The parallel rise
of Athens as a major power in Greece led to friction with Sparta, and to two
large-scale conflicts, (the First and Second Peloponnesian Wars), which
devastated Greece. Sparta suffered several defeats during these wars,
including, for the first time, the surrender of an entire Spartan unit at
Sphacteria in 425 BC, but ultimately emerged victorious, primarily through the
aid it received from the Persians. Under its admiral Lysander, the
Persian-funded Peloponnesian fleet captured the cities of the Athenian
alliance, and a decisive naval victory at Aegospotami forced Athens to
capitulate.[8] The Athenian defeat left Sparta and its military forces in a
dominant position in Greece. End of Hegemony Further information: Spartan
hegemony Spartan ascendancy did not last long. By the end of the 5th century
BC, Sparta had suffered serious casualties in the Peloponnesian Wars, and its
conservative and narrow mentality alienated many of its former allies. At the
same time, its military class – the Spartiate caste – was in decline
for several reasons: Population decline due to Sparta's frequent wars in the
late 5th century. Since Spartiates were required to marry late, birth rates
remained low, making it difficult to replace their losses. One could be demoted
from Spartiate status for a number of reasons such as cowardice in battle or
the inability to pay for membership in the syssitia. Inability to pay became
such an increasingly severe problem because commercial activity had started to
develop in Sparta. Because of this, commerce had become uncontrollable, leading
to the complete ban of commerce in Sparta. This led to lesser ways of earning
income; consequently, some Spartiates had to sell the land from which they drew
their income. As the constitution made no provisions for promotion to Spartiate
caste, numbers gradually dwindled. As Sparta's military power waned, Thebes
repeatedly challenged its authority. The ensuing Corinthian War led to the
humiliating Peace of Antalcidas that destroyed Sparta's reputation as the
protector of the independence of Greek city-states. At the same time, Spartan
military prestige suffered a severe blow when a mora of 600 men was decimated
by peltasts (light troops) under the command of the Athenian general
Iphicrates. Spartan authority finally collapsed after their disastrous defeat
at the Battle of Leuctra by the Thebans commanded by Epaminondas in 371 BC. The
battle, in which large numbers of Spartiates were killed, resulted in the loss
of the fertile Messenia region.
Army organization
Social structure "... the allies of the Lacedaemonians were offended at
Agesilaus, because ... they themselves [provided] so many [soldiers], and the
Lacedaemonians, whom they followed, so few. ... Agesilaus, wishing to refute
their argument with numbers ... ordered all the allies to sit down by
themselves promiscuously, the Lacedaemonians apart by themselves. Then his
herald called upon the potters to stand up first, and after them the smiths,
next, the carpenters in their turn, and the builders, and so on through all the
handicrafts. In response, almost all the allies rose up, but not a man of the
Lacedaemonians; for they were forbidden to learn or practice a manual art. Then
Agesilaus said with a laugh: 'You see, O men, how many more soldiers than you
we are sending out.'" Plutarch, The Life of Agesilaus, 26 The Spartan
people (the "Lacedaemonians") were divided into three classes: Full
citizens, known as the Spartiates proper, or Hómoioi ("equals"
or peers), who received a grant of land (kláros or kleros,
"lot") for their military service. Perioeci (the "dwellers
nearby"), free non-citizens, generally merchants, craftsmen and sailors,
who were used as light infantry and on auxiliary roles on campaign.[9] The
third and most numerous class were the Helots, state-owned serfs used to farm
the Spartiate kleros. By the 5th century BC, the helots, too, were used as
light troops in skirmishes.[1] The Spartiates were the core of the Spartan
army: they participated in the Assembly (Apella) and provided the hoplites in
the army. Indeed, they were supposed to be soldiers and nothing else, being
forbidden to learn and exercise any other trade.[1] To a large degree, the
constant war footing of Spartan society was needed to keep the vastly more
numerous helots subdued.[11] One of the major problems of later Spartan society
was the steady decline in fully enfranchised citizens, which also meant a
decline in available military manpower: the number of Spartiates decreased from
6,000 in 640 BC to 1,000 in 330 BC.[12] The Spartans were therefore forced to
use helot hoplites, and occasionally they freed some of the Laconian helots,
the neodamodeis (the "newly enfranchised"), and gave them land to
settle in exchange for military service.[13] The Spartiate population was
subdivided into age groups. The youngest at 20 were counted as weaker due to
lack of experience, and the oldest, up to 60 or in a crisis 65, were only
called up in an emergency, to defend the baggage train.
Tactical structure Spartan helmet on display at the British Museum. The helmet
has been damaged and the top has sustained a blow, presumably from a battle.
The principal source for the organization of the Spartan Army is Xenophon, who
admired the Spartans and whose Constitution of Sparta offers a detailed
overview of the Spartan state and society at the beginning of the 4th century
BC. Other authors, notably Thucydides, also provide information, but it is not
always as reliable as Xenophon's first-hand accounts.[14] Little is known of
the earlier organisation, and much is left open to speculation. The earliest
form of social and military organization (during the 7th century BC) seems to
have been the three tribes (phylai: the Pamphyloi, Hylleis and Dymanes), who
appear in the Second Messenian War (685–668 BC). A further subdivision was
the "fraternity" (phratra), of which 27, or nine per tribe, are
recorded.[15] Eventually this system was replaced by five territorial
divisions, the obai ("villages"), which supplied a lochos of c. 1,000
men each.[16] This system was still used during the Persian Wars, as implied by
references to the lochoi made by Herodotus in his history.[17] The changes that
occurred between the Persian and the Peloponnesian Wars are not documented, but
according to Thucydides, at Mantinea in 418 BC there were 7 lochoi present,
each subdivided into four pentekostyes of 128 men, which were further
subdivided into four enomotiai of 32 men, giving a total of 3,584 men for the
main Spartan army.[18] By the end of the Peloponnesian War, the structure had
evolved further, both to address the shortages in manpower and to create a more
flexible system that allowed the Spartans to send smaller detachments on
campaign or to garrisons outside their homeland.[19] According to Xenophon, the
basic Spartan unit remained the enomotia, with 36 men in three files of twelve
under an enomotarches.[20] Two enomotiai formed a pentekostys of 72 men under a
pentekonter, and two pentekostyai were grouped into a lochos of 144 men under a
lochagos. Four lochoi formed a mora of 576 men under a polemarchos, the largest
single tactical unit of the Spartan army.[21] Six morai composed the Spartan
army on campaign, to which were added the Skiritai and the contingents of
allied states. The kings and the hippeis Areus I, a Spartan king during the
Chremonidean War, on a coin (310–266 BC) The full army was normally led in
battle by the two kings; initially, both went on campaign, but after the 6th
century BC only one, with the other remaining at home.[6] Unlike other states,
their authority was severely circumscribed; actual power rested with the five
elected ephoroi.[1] The kings were accompanied by a select group of 300 men as
a royal guard, who were termed hippeis ("cavalrymen"). Despite their
title, they were infantry hoplites like all Spartiatai. Indeed, the Spartans
did not utilize a cavalry of their own until late into the Peloponnesian War,
when small units of 60 cavalrymen were attached to each mora.[21] The hippeis
belonged to the first mora and were the elite of the Spartan army, being
deployed on the honorary right side of the battle line. They were selected
every year by specially commissioned officials, the hippagretai, from among
experienced men who had sons, so that their line would continue.[17]
Training Further information: Agoge "? ?e??’, ??????e??
?a?eda?µ?????? ?t? t?de ?e?µe?a, t??? ?e???? ??µas?
pe???µe???." "Go tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, that
here, obedient to their laws, we lie." Simonides of Ceos, Epitaph on the
burial mound of the Spartans who fell at Thermopylae[22] At first, in the
archaic period of 700–600 BC, education for both sexes was, as in most
Greek states, centred on the arts, with the male citizen population later
receiving military education. However, from the 6th century onwards, the
military character of the state became more pronounced, and education was
totally subordinated to the needs of the military.[23] Both boys and girls were
brought up by the city women until the age of seven, when boys (paidia) were
taken from their mothers and grouped together in "packs" (agelai) and
were sent to what is almost equivalent to present-day military boot camp. This
military camp was known as the Agoge. They became inured to hardship, being
provided with scant food and clothing; this also encouraged them to steal, and
if they were caught, they were punished – not for stealing, but for being
caught.[11] There is a characteristic story, told by Plutarch: "The boys
make such a serious matter of their stealing, that one of them, as the story
goes, who was carrying concealed under his cloak a young fox which he had
stolen, suffered the animal to tear out his bowels with its teeth and claws,
and died rather than have his theft detected."[24] The boys were
encouraged to compete against one another in games and mock fights and to
foster an esprit de corps. In addition, they were taught to read and write and
learned the songs of Tyrtaios, that celebrated Spartan exploits in the Second
Messenian War. They learned to read and write not for cultural reasons, but so
they could be able to read military maps.[25] At the age of twelve, a boy was
classed as a "youth" (meirakion). His physical education was
intensified, discipline became much harsher, and the boys were loaded with
extra tasks. The youths had to go barefoot, and were dressed only in a tunic
both in summer and in winter.[11] Adulthood was reached at the age of 18, and
the young adult (eiren) initially served as a trainer for the boys. At the same
time, the most promising youths were included in the Krypteia. If they survived
the two years in the countryside they would become full blown soldiers. At 20,
Spartans became eligible for military service and joined one of the messes
(syssitia), which included 15 men of various ages.[26] Those who were rejected
retained a lesser form of citizenship, as only the soldiers were ranked among
the homoioi. However, even after that, and even during marriage and until about
the age of 30, they would spend most of their day in the barracks with their
unit. Military duty lasted until the 60th year, but there are recorded cases of
older people participating in campaigns in times of crisis.[15] Throughout
their adult lives, the Spartiates continued to be subject to a training regime
so strict that, as Plutarch says, "... they were the only men in the world
with whom war brought a respite in the training for war."[27] Bravery was
the ultimate virtue for the Spartans: Spartan mothers would give their sons the
shield with the words "[Return] With it or [carried] on it!" (? t?? ?
?p? t??),[28] that is to say, either victorious or dead, since in battle, the
heavy hoplite shield would be the first thing a fleeing soldier would be
tempted to abandon –- rhipsaspia, "dropping the shield", was a
synonym for desertion in the field.[29]
The army on campaign Tactics Modern reconstruction of a phalanx advancing in
close ranks. Further information: Phalanx Like the armies of the other Greek
states, the Spartan army was an infantry-based army that fought using the
phalanx formation. The Spartans themselves did not introduce any significant
changes or tactical innovations in hoplite warfare, but their constant drill
and superb discipline made their phalanx much more cohesive and effective. The
Spartans employed the phalanx in the classical style in a single line,
uniformly deep in files of 8 to 12 men. When fighting alongside their allies,
the Spartans would normally occupy the honorary right flank. If, as usually
happened, the Spartans achieved victory on their side, they would then wheel
left and roll up the enemy formation.[30] During the Peloponnesian War,
engagements became more fluid, light troops became increasingly used and
tactics evolved to meet them, but in direct confrontations between two opposing
phalanxes, stamina and "pushing ability" were what counted.[31] It
was only when the Thebans, under Epaminondas increased the depth of a part of
their formation at the Battle of Leuctra that the Spartan phalanx broke. On the
march According to Xenophon, the army was mobilized by the ephors, and after a
series of religious ceremonies and sacrifices, the army assembled and set
out.[32] The army proceeded led by the king, with the skiritai and cavalry
detachments acting as an advance guard and scouting parties.[33] The necessary
provisions (barley, cheese, onions and salted meat) were carried along with the
army, and each Spartan was accompanied by a helot manservant.[34] Each mora
marched and camped separately, with its own baggage train.[35] Sacrifice was
given every morning and before battle by the king and the officers; if the
omens were not favourable, a pious leader might refuse to march or to engage
the enemy.[36] Clothing, arms, and armor The Spartans used the same typical
hoplite equipment as the other Greek neighbors; the only distinctive Spartan
features were the crimson tunic (chiton) and cloak (himation),[37] and long
hair, which the Spartans retained to a far later date than most Greeks. To the
Spartans, long hair retained its older Archaic meaning as the symbol of a free
man; to the other Greeks, by the 5th century, its peculiar association with the
Spartans had come to signify pro-Spartan sympathies.[38]
Classical period The letter lambda (?), standing for Laconia or Lacedaemon,
which was painted on the Spartans' shields, was first adopted in the 420s BC,
and quickly became a widely known Spartan symbol.[39] Military families passed
on their shields to each generation as family heirlooms. The technical
evolution and design of Spartan shields evolved from bashing and shield wall
tactics, and were of such great importance in the Spartan army that while
losing a sword and a spear was an exception, to lose a shield was a sign of
disgrace. Not only does it protect the user, but it also protects the whole
phalanx formation. To come home without the shield was the mark of a deserter;
rhipsaspia or "dropping the shield", was a synonym for desertion in
the field. Mothers bidding farewell to their sons would encourage them to come
back with their shields, often saying goodbyes like "Son, either with this
or on this" (? t?? ? ?p? t??), meaning they should return only in victory,
a controlled retreat, or death, their body being carried on the shield.[40][41]
Spartan hoplites were often depicted bearing a transverse horsehair crest on
their helmet, which was possibly used to identify officers.[42] In the Archaic
period, Spartans were armored with flanged bronze cuirasses, leg greaves, and a
helmet, often of the Corinthian type. It is often disputed which torso armor
the Spartans wore during the Persian Wars, though it seems likely they either
continued to wear bronze cuirasses of a more sculptured type, or instead had
adopted the linothorax. During the later 5th century BC, when warfare had
become more flexible and full-scale phalanx confrontations became rarer, the
Greeks abandoned most forms of body armor. The Lacedaemonians also adopted a
new tunic, the exomis, which could be arranged so that it left the right arm
and shoulder uncovered and free for action in combat.[43] The Spartan's main
weapon was the dory spear. For long range, they carried a javelin. The
Spartiates were always armed with a xiphos as a secondary weapon. Among most
Greek warriors, this weapon had an iron blade of about 60 centimeters; however,
the Spartan version was typically only 30–45 centimetres. The Spartans'
shorter weapon proved deadly in the crush caused by colliding phalanxes
formations – it was capable of being thrust through gaps in the enemy's
shield wall and armor, where there was no room for longer weapons. The groin
and throat were among the favorite targets. In one account, an Athenian asked a
Spartan why his sword was so short and after a short pause he replied,
"It's long enough to reach your heart." In another, a Spartan
complained to his mother that the sword was short, to which she simply told him
to step closer to the enemy. As an alternative to the xiphos, some Spartans
selected the kopis as their secondary weapon. Unlike the xiphos, which is a
thrusting weapon, the kopis was a hacking weapon in the form of a thick, curved
iron sword. In Athenian art, Spartan hoplites were often depicted using a kopis
instead of the xiphos, as the kopis was seen as a quintessential "bad
guys" weapon in Greek eyes.[44] The Spartans retained the traditional
hoplite phalanx until the reforms of Cleomenes III, when they were re-equipped
with the Macedonian sarissa and trained in the style of the phalanx. Spartans
trained in pankration, a famous martial art in Ancient Greece that consisted of
boxing and grappling. Spartans were so adept in pankration that, when it was
inducted in the Olympic Games, they were mostly forbidden to compete.[citation
needed]
Hellenistic period During the Hellenistic period Spartan equipment evolved
drastically. Since the early 3th century BC the pilos helmet had become almost
standard within the Spartan army, being in use by the Spartans until the end of
the Classical era[citation needed]. Also after the "Iphicratean
reforms" peltasts became a much more common sight on the Greek battlefield
and themselves became more heavily armed. In response to Iphicrates' victory
over Sparta in 392 BC, Spartan hoplites started abandoning body armour and
eventually wore almost no armour apart from a shield, leg greaves, bracelets,
helmet and a robe. In later periods Spartans did start to readopt armour, but
on a much lesser scale than during the Archaic period. Finally during 227 BC,
Cleomenes' reforms introduced updated equipment to Sparta, including the
Macedonian sarissa (pike). However pike-men armed with the sarissa never
outnumbered troops equipped in the hoplite style. It was also in that time
Sparta adopted its own cavalry and archers.
Philosophy, education, and the Spartan code Further information: Laconic phrase
The Spartan philosopher Lycurgus, from a series of marble reliefs depicting the
great lawgivers of history, at the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives
Spartan philosophy Contrary to popular belief, Spartans valued knowledge and
education more than the Athenians did.[45] Spartan philosophers include
Lycurgus and Chilon of Sparta. Although Athens has been praised as the
"inventor" of democracy and philosophy, Sparta often has been viewed
in popular culture as a society characterized by brutal, mindless discipline
and merciless emphasis on physical fitness.[citation needed] Sparta, however,
had its own democratic government. In the Appella or Demos as early as 700 BC,
Spartans elect leaders and voted by range voting and shouting. Every male age
30 and above could participate. Aristotle called the Spartan electoral process
"childish" in contrast to the stone ballots cast by the Athenians.
Sparta adopted its procedure for the sake of simplicity, and to prevent any
bias voting, bribing, or cheating that was predominant in the early democratic
elections.[46] Spartan education The Spartan public education system, the
agoge, trained the mind as well as the body. Spartans were not only literate,
but admired for their intellectual culture and poetry. Socrates said the
"most ancient and fertile homes of philosophy among the Greeks are Crete
and Sparta, where are found more sophists than anywhere on earth."[47]
Public education was provided for girls as well as boys, and consequently
literacy rate was higher in Sparta than in other Greek city-states.[48] In
education, sports was given the most emphasis in teaching.[48] Self-discipline,
not kadavergehorsam (mindless obedience) was the goal of Spartan education.
Sparta placed the values of liberty, equality, and fraternity at the center of
their ethical system. These values applied to every full Spartan citizen,
immigrant, merchant, and even to the helots, but not to the dishonored. Helots
are unique in the history of slavery in that unlike traditional slaves, they
were allowed to keep and gain wealth. They could keep half their agricultural
produce and presumably sell it; thus accumulating wealth. There are known to
have been some occasions that a helot with enough money was allowed to purchase
their freedom from the state.[49]
Spartan code of honor The Spartan hoplite followed a strict laconic code of
honor. No soldier was considered superior to another.[48] Suicidal
recklessness, berserkery, and rage were prohibited in a Spartan army, as those
behaviors endangered the phalanx. Recklessness could lead to dishonor, as in
the case of Aristodemus.[50] Spartans regarded those who fight, while still
wishing to live, as more valorous than those who don't care if they die.[50]
They believed that a warrior must not fight with raging anger, but with calmed
determination.[51] By the laconic way of life, Spartans must walk without any
noise, and speak only with few words.[48] Other ways for Spartans to be
dishonored were dropping the shield (rhipsaspia), failing to complete the
training, and deserting in battle. Dishonored Spartans were labeled outcasts,
and were forced to wear different clothing for public humiliation.[48] In
battle, stories of valor were told to inspire troops and, before a major
confrontation, they sang soft songs to calm the nerves.[52] Spartan navy Model
of a Greek trireme from the Deutsches Museum, Munich Throughout their history,
the Spartans were a land based force par excellence. During the Persian Wars,
they contributed a small navy of 20 triremes, and provided the overall fleet
commander, but they largely relied on their allies, primarily the Corinthians,
for naval power. This fact meant that, when the Peloponnesian War broke out,
the Spartans were supreme on land, but the Athenians supreme at sea. The
Spartans repeatedly ravaged Attica, but the Athenians kept being supplied by
sea, and were able to stage raids of their own around the Peloponnese with
their navy. Eventually, it was the creation of a navy that enabled Sparta to
overcome Athens. With Persian gold, Lysander, appointed navarch in 407 BC, was
able to master a strong navy, and successfully challenge and destroy Athenian
predominance in the Aegean Sea.[8] The Spartan engagement with the sea would be
short-lived, however, and did not survive the turmoils of the Corinthian War:
in the Battle of Cnidus of 394 BC, the Spartan navy was decisively defeated by
a joint Athenian-Persian fleet, marking the end of Sparta's brief naval
supremacy. The final blow would be given 20 years later, at the Battle of Naxos
in 376 BC. A small fleet was periodically maintained thereafter, but its
effectiveness was limited; the last revival of Spartan naval power was under
Nabis, who, with aid from his Cretan allies, created a fleet to control the
Laconian coastline. The fleet was commanded by navarchs, who were appointed for
a strictly one-year term, and apparently could not be reappointed. The admirals
were subordinated to the vice-admiral, called epistoleus. This position is
seemingly independent of the one-year term clause, because it was used, in 405
BC to give Lysander command of the fleet after he was already an admiral for a
year.
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