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The Siege of Segesta took place
either in the summer of 398 or the spring of 397 . Dionysius the Elder, tyrant
of Syracuse, after securing peace with Carthage in 405 , had steadily increased
his military power and tightened his grip on Syracuse. He had fortified
Syracuse against sieges and had created a large army of mercenaries and a large
fleet, in addition to employing catapults and quinqueremes for the first time
in history. In 398 he attacked and sacked the Phoenician city of
Motya despite a Carthaginian relief effort led
by Himilco II of Carthage. While Motya was under siege, Dionysius besieged and
assaulted Segesta unsuccessfully. Following the sack of Motya, Segesta again
came under siege by Greek forces, but the Elymian forces based in Segesta
managed to inflict damage on the Greek camp in a daring night assault. When
Himilco of Carthage arrived in Sicily with the Carthaginian army in the spring
of 397 , Dionysius withdrew to Syracuse. The failure of Dionysius to secure a
base in western Sicily meant the main events of the Second Sicilian war would
be acted out mostly in eastern Sicily, sparing the Elymian and Phoenician
cities the ravages of war until 368 .
Opponents:
Syracuse and Sicilian Greeks
Segesta and Carthage
Commanders and leaders:
Dionysius I of Syracuse
Segesta -Unknown and Himilco II of Carthage
Strength:
Syracuse - 80,000 foot and 3,000 horse
Segesta - 50,000 from Carthage
Casualties and losses: Unknown for both sides
Background:
The Elymians claimed to be refugees from Troy and they inhabited parts of
north-western Sicily by 1100 , Segesta, Eryx and Entella being their main
cities. The Elymian territory had several navigable rivers and was generally
hilly, they were not seafarers and on the whole friendly with the Phoenician
colonies of Motya, Panormus and Solus which bordered their domain. In some ways
the Second Sicilian war stemmed from the refusal of the Elymians to accept
Greek incursions and colonization attempts the same way the Sikans and Sicels
had in Sicily.
Meddling Greeks and Punics:
Greek colonization of Sicily started with the founding of Naxos in 735 , and
they planted several colonies along the coast of Sicily by driving away,
subjugating or allying with the neighboring Sicel and Sikan communities, and
with the establishment of Himera in 648 and Selinus in 628 the Greeks reached
the border of Elymian and Phoenician territory in Sicily. Himera, an Ionian
Greek city, started no wars with the nearby Phoenicians, Elymians and Sicels,
but Doric Selinus soon came to blows with her neighbors. With the founding of
Akragas in 580 , Selinute territory was boxed in between Heraclea Minoa and
Mazara, and to expand, Selinus had to either attack the Elymians in the north,
the Phoenicians to the west of Selinus or Akragas in the east. A war between
Selinus and Elymians was raging in 580 when Pentathlos of Knidos tried to
colonize Lilybaeum, from where the Greeks could block the harbor of Motya and
threaten Phoenician commerce. The Phoenicians joined the Elymians to defeat the
Greeks and kill Pentathlos.
The survivors moved to Lipara and became a threat for the Etruscans. Malchus of
Carthage brought the Phoenician colonies under Carthaginian control around 540
, and "conquered most of Sicily", but it is unknown if he had fought
the Elymians or the Greeks in Sicily during his time in Sicily. Selinus
probably had conflicts with Carthage and was defeated around that time,
resulting in a pro Carthaginian despot named Theron become tyrant, and sparing
western Sicily from major warfare for the next 30 years. In 510 , Dorieus of
Sparta tried to colonize Eryx, Elmyans and Carthaginians joined hands to defeat
that attempt, but the pro Carthaginian tyrant of Selinus was deposed by the
surviving Spartans and Akragas took over Hereclea Minoa by 500 . The Elymians
joined Carthage against Greeks in a war that destroyed Minoa after 510. The
rise of Gelo in Syracuse and Theron in Akragas divided Sicily into 3 power
blocks by 480 , Carthage, allied with Elymians, and Selinus controlled the
west, Carthaginian allies in Himera and Rhegion controlled the north, while
Syracuse and Akragas dominated the east and south. The Elymians took no part in
the first battle of Himera, where Syracuse and Akragas combined to defeat a
Carthaginian expedition. Theron of Akragas may also have then attacked Motya,
but Carthage lost no Sicilian territory after making peace with the Greeks,
while Selinus and Rhegion also came to terms with Gelo. Syracuse remained
dominant in Sicilian affairs until 466 while Carthage stayed away for the next
70 years.
Fortunate reprieve: bickering Greeks"
For the next 50 years Elymians and Phoenicians were spared serious Greek
aggression because of Greek infighting in Sicily. Theron of Akragas and Hieron
of Syracuse, Gelo's brother and successor nearly went to war in 476 , Gela
split from Hieron's empire in 476 under his brother Polyzelos, Theron
slaughtered Ionian Greeks of Himera while putting down a rebellion and settled
Dorian Greeks there in 476 . Akragas and Syracuse fought a war in 472 ,
resulting in the destruction of Theron's empire, Hieron of Syracuse died in 467
, and soon Greek Sicily, where the tyrants of Akragas, Rhegion and Syracuse had
controlled all the Greek cities except Selinus since 480 , split into 11
feuding entities under democracies and oligarchies by 461. Carthage had not
been invited to this party and probably saw no reason to gatecrash their way
in.
Growth of Segesta: 480 – 450:
Segesta was untouched by these events, while increased trading contacts with
the Greek cities after 480 increased their economic prosperity. The Elymian
territory was hemmed in by the Phoenicians to the north and west and the Greeks
in the south, so the Elymians needed a delicate balancing act to ensure no
conflicts arose with their more powerful neighbors. Segesta became the de facto
political center of the Elymians, making treaties on their behalf and most
Elymian cities began following Segesta in foreign policy matters. Segesta had
little trouble with the Greeks after 480 and reached the peak of her powers
between 480– 430 , apparently aided by Carthaginian inaction in Sicily,
relative Selinute inactivity and the fragmentation of large Greek powers. The
Elyminas except those of Eryx began to become more Hellenized during this
period, and increased prosperity probably enabled the building of their famous
Doric temple around 430 . Elymians also began to muscle in on their adjacent
territory after 480 , Segesta fought a war involving Motya, Selinus and Akragas
around 454 , and retained enough local clout to command Phoenician, Greek and
other Elymian cities to bring in gold to fool the Athenians in 418. While the
Sicilian Greeks brawled among themselves, Athens had created an empire in the
guise of the Delian League and was seeking to intervene in Sicily, where Dorian
Greek cities, potential allies of Athenian rival Sparta, were becoming
dominant. The war of 454 probably exposed Elymian weakness as a military power
causing Segesta to unsuccessfully appeal to Athens for aid.
Sicilian Greek revival and Elymian decline:
The Segestan appeal had come at a time when Sicilian Greek cities had become
politically stable and increased prosperity (partly from overseas trade)
enabled some to finance territorial expansion efforts. Syracuse had sent two
plundering expeditions against the Etruscans which may have temporarily
disrupted Etruscan control over Corsica and Elba in 454. Ducetius had begun
uniting the Sicels against the Greeks after 459 and Sicel conflicts had kept
Syracuse and Akragas occupied until 440. Syracuse and Akragas fought a brief
war in 445 , Sicilian cities became split in their support and defeated Akragas
ultimately came to terms. Syracuse began massive military preparations in 439
by building 100 triremes, doubling their cavalry and reordering the infantry,
with the probable aim to conquer all Sicily which may have caused other
Sicilian Greek cities to look to Athens for support while taking defensive
measures, but the Elymians were either unwilling or unable to do likewise.
While Athens had not acted on the Segestan appeal in 454 , but, as part of her
interests in western Mediterranean Athenians helped found Thurii in Italy in
443 , and had made alliances with the Ionian Greek cities of Rhegion and
Leontini in 433 . Euktemon, an Athenian citizen from Amphipolis had devised a
Peripolus on western Mediterranean, and Athenian politicians had discussed
possible action against Carthage.[16] After the Peloponesian War started in 431
, Sparta and Corinth, enemies of Athens, asked the Dorian Greek cities of Magna
Greacia to make ready 500 warships, although none had been sent to mainland
Greece by 427 . This gave an added incentive for the Athenian to try to
intervene in Sicily and set in motion events that eventually led to the
Carthaginian intervention of 409 .
A chain reaction:
Syracuse and Leontini stated a war in 427 , while Leontini was aided by Naxos,
Catana, Camarina and Rhegion, Syracuse got support from Selinus, Messana and
Locri, Akragas remained neutral. Athens sent a fleet to aid Leontini in 426 ,
which managed to capture Messana, signed a friendship treaty with the Sicels
and Segesta, probably because Selinus and Himera were hostile to Athens. The
Athenians ultimately failed to relieve Leontini and the war ended with the
Congress of Gela in 424 , where Sicilian Greeks pledged not to accept outside
interference in Sicilian matters. Political divisions between the aristocrats
and commons at Leontini enabled Syracuse to occupy and garrison the city in 423
on behalf of the aristocrats, who became citizens of Syracuse while their
opponents were driven out. Soon some of the Oligarchs joined the commons near
Leontini and began warring against Syracuse.
Selinus mauls Segesta:
Little is known of Sicilian affairs until 416 , when after a peace lasting
almost 3 decades, Segestan power seems to have weakened. The Athenian alliance
made the Elymians enemies of the Doric cities of Sicily, namely of Selinus and
Syracuse. Greeks of Selinus opened hostilities in 416 by crossing the upper
reaches of the River Mazaros, to occupy some disputed lands on the border of
Segestan domain. Greeks began harassing Elymian lands, Segesta requested the
Greeks to stop, and when this fail to stop the raids they managed to recapture
the lands, but the Greeks defeated them in a later battle. Segesta then
requested Akragas and Syracuse to intervene in vain, in fact Syracuse sent a
fleet to blockade the Elymian coast. Segesta next requested Carthage to
intervene, but the Carthaginians refused aid, and finally Segesta in
desperation turned to Athens for help.
Athens roped in:
Athens had recovered from the first phase of the Peloponnesian war and was
involved in the second phase of the war when Segesta appealed for aid in the
spring of 416 . Exiles from occupied Leontini and the Elymian ambassadors
managed to convince the Athenians to send an expedition to Sicily, by stating
that if Syracuse took over Sicily they could threaten Athens next, and Segesta
would finance the Athenian forces sent to Sicily. The Athenians, after much
deliberation, decided to send a fact finding mission tom Sicily to check out
the wealth of Segesta which returned to Athens in the following spring and
painted a fabulous picture of the riches of Segesta.
Elymians con Athenians:
Segesta had sent 60 talents of silver, enough to keep 60 triremes afloat for a
month to Athens, the temple at Eryx contained dazzling treasures, while all the
Athenians were feasted to many dinners on plates of gold and silver throughout
Segesta and other cities. Phoenicians and Carthaginians had the reputation of
being Swindlers (probably because of their ability to trade cheap trinkets for
silver and gold in Iberia and Africa, then use the wealth to buy Greek goods
and built navies to keep the Greeks away from these markets). The Elymians
probably had picked up a few tricks from their neighbors, because to impress to
visiting Athenians of their wealth, they had used the same plates at different
parties over and over again, fancy goods were collected from neighboring cities
and shown off as the wealth of Segesta and Elymians to their Greek guests. The
duped Athenians sent a force to Sicily to aid Segesta and Leontini in 415 , but
the Athenians attacked Syracuse instead of Selinus and were wiped out after a
prolonged struggle by 413 . Segesta became a marked enemy of Sicilian Greeks,
and Selinus attacked and defeated Segesta in 411.
Price of freedom:
Punic vassal Segesta now offered to become a Carthaginian vassal for protection
against Greek aggression. Carthage accepted the offer, and Hannibal Mago led an
expedition to Sicily that destroyed Selinus and wiped out Himera as well in 409
. Greek aggression against Punic territory led to a second invasion under
Hannibal and Himilco II that saw the sack of Akragas in 406 , Greek abandonment
and Carthaginian sack of Gela and Camarina in 405 and the establishment of
Carthaginian control over most of Sicily and the confirmation of Dionysius as
tyrant of Syracuse in 405 as a condition of peace. The Elmians became dependent
allies of Carthage, paying for any Punic garrisons in their territory, and
giving up their independent foreign policy but retaining control of internal
affairs.
Prelude:
Preparations of Dionysius Between 405 and 397:
Dionysius took steps to increase the power of Syracuse, dealt with attempts to
overthrow him and made Syracuse the best defended city in the whole Greek
world. To counter Carthaginian expertise in siege warfare, Dionysius built a
wall enclosing the whole Epipolae Platue, built forts to house troops and
surrounded the whole city with walls. He also expanded the army by hiring
mercenaries, increased the size of the Syracusan navy and built Quinqueremes
for his fleet and Catapults to aid his siege operations, and made suits of
armor and arms to equip soldiers at state expense. He also expanded Syracusan
territory by attacking the Sicels and conquering the Greek cities of Naxos,
Leontini and Catana. In 398 , Dionysius besieged Motya, starting a war with
Carthage, and Segesta was caught in the middle again. Elymian power had further
weakened by this time, as Entella had been taken over by a group of Campanian
mercenaries (another group would take over Messina 115 years later and cause
the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage) who were loyal to Carthage but not to
Segesta.
Dionysius commences hostilities:
Carthaginian rule over Sicily had been harsh, and as Dionysius and his army
marched west along the southern coast of Sicily, Greek cities under
Carthaginian domain rebelled and along with Sikans, Sicels and the city of
Messene sent contingents to join Dionysius, while only Panormus, Solus,
Ancyrae, Segesta and Entella and Motya remained loyal to Carthage. By the time
Dionysius reached Motya, contingents of Greeks, Sicels, and Sikans had
augmented his forces to 83,000 souls, even Elymian Eryx joined the Greeks.
Dionysius had ample manpower at his command to take on multiple tasks
simultaneously, and he took advantage of it. He put his brother Leptines in
charge of the siege of Motya, beached all his transport ships and part of his
fleet and used their crews to build the siege works. Part of the army was left
at Motya while Dionysius led the rest to plunder the Elymian and Punic
territories in western Sicily. He then put Segesta and Entella under siege.
Segesta under siege:
There were several reasons for Dionysius to take a crack at Segesta, he had a
large army and idle soldiers were often unruly, capture of Segesta would yield
much booty and also might cow the other Elymian cities into submission.
Logistics might have also influenced his decision, as there were no natural
harbors in the southern coast of Sicily big enough to house the entire Greek
fleet and it was easier to bring supplies by sea. Beaching ships to supply the
army were dangerous as the enemy fleet might surprise and destroy it (Spartans
captured most of the beached Athenian fleet at Aegospotami in 405 to win the
Peloponnesian War and Carthaginians destroyed Dionysius' own transport fleet
while they were beached at Motya in 398 and defeated the Greeks at Akragas by
capturing their supply fleet). Capture of Segesta and Entella would have given
Dionysius control of excellent defensive sites which could serve as supply
bases for Dionysius, enabling him to stay and fight the Carthaginians in
western Sicily. Dionysius was probably also testing the capability of his army
at siege warfare prior to tackling his main objective: Motya.
Defenses of Segesta:
The city of Segesta is built around twin peaks of Mt. Barbaro, respectively 415
and 433 meters in height. The mountain itself sits in the middle of an elevated
valley, while the deep gorges of River Pispina form a natural moat on three
sides of the hill. The city itself was walled, parts of which is still visible
today. The walls initially may have covered both peaks, but at a later date
were rebuilt only around the city proper.
Greek forces:
The mainstay of the Greek army was the Hoplite, drawn mainly from the citizens
by Dionysius had a large number of mercenaries from Italy and Greece as well.
Sicels and other native Sicilians also served in the army as hoplites and also
supplied peltasts, and a number of Campanians, probably equipped like Samnite
or Etruscan warriors, were present as well. The Phalanx was the standard
fighting formation of the army. The cavalry was recruited from wealthier
citizens and hired mercenaries. Dionysius probably had an army which was
predominantly made of mercenaries, as Greek citizens liked short campaigns and
were reluctant to fight during off season. Dionysius had mustered an army of
40,000 foot and 3,000 horsemen,[35] from both citizens and mercenaries (at
least 10,000, if not more) for attacking Motya in 398 , perhaps along with
another 40,000 Greek, Sicel and Sikan volunteers. The actual number of soldiers
at Segesta in unknown, as Dionysius had only part of his army with him.
Elymian warriors:
Himilco had garrisoned the Punic and Elymian territories in 405 , it is unknown
if Segesta had any Carthaginian soldiers present when Dionysius besieged the
city. Large Sicilian cities like Syracuse and Akragas could field up to 10,000
– 20,000 citizens, while smaller ones like Himera and Messana between
3,000 – 6,000 soldiers. Segesta could probably field similar numbers, and
probably augment their levy with allied contingents. Segestan cavalry probably
was not as efficient as that of Selinus (probably for this reason Carthage
equipped a cavalry force for them in 410 to fight Selinus). It is not known to
what extent Greek cultural influenced the Elymian military equipment in 397 ,
probably Segestans also fielded a force of hoplites. In siege situations, women
and old men could be used as impromptu peltasts.
The siege of 398:
The Greek army probably encamped to the north of the city prior to attacking
the city. Dionysius did try to starve the Elymians into submission; he
assaulted the city several times. It is not known if the Greeks had employed
siege towers, battering rams and catapults to assault the walls, or had simply
tried to scale the walls using ladders. Whatever means the Greeks used to
attack Segesta, they were all repulsed, likewise Entella withstood whatever the
Greeks had thrown at them. Dionysius decided not to whittle away his strength
in futile battles with Motya untaken, so he left enough soldiers to keep the
Elymians from making mischief and marched back to Motya. He expected Segesta
and the other cities still holding out for Carthage to fold once Motya had
fallen. Dionysius managed to storm and sack Motya after foiling the Himilco led
Carthaginian relief effort despite being trapped, and marched back to Syracuse
during the winter. However, Greek detachments garrisoned Motya and remained in
the vicinity of Segesta and Entella to maintain the blockade.
Spring 397: Dionysius renews siege:
Himilco led the army raised by Carthage, 50,000 men along with 400 triremes and
600 transports to Sicily in the spring of 397 and reached Panormus despite the
efforts of Leptines to stop the Carthaginian armada. However, Dionysius had
already moved to western Sicily, and he had bullied the Sikans and Sicels on
his way to Segesta, forcing the city of Halikyai to join the Greek side. He
joined the Greek force at Segesta and put the city under blockade. Dionysius
was a master of night attacks, he had conquered Motya through one and would
lift the siege of Syracuse through another. However, Dionysius himself fell
victim to an Elymian nighttime sally at Segesta. The Elymians managed to reach
his camp undetected, and burn down most of the tents. Although few men had
perished in the flames, all the cavalry horses were lost – a serious loss
considering Himlico was about to reach Sicily with an army. Dionysius kept
Segesta under blockade and continued ravaging the nearby lands. Himilco did not
immediately come to Segesta, after being joined by some Elymians and Sikans, he
recaptured Eryx, then moved to Motya and captured the city and founded
Lilybaeum.
Dionysius now lifted the siege of Segesta and fell back. While Himilco marched
for Segesta Dionysius pondered his options; his provisions were running low and
he was on hostile territory, much of which had been ravaged. The Greeks were
eager for battle and wanted to march against Himilco's army, but Dionysius
probably had second thoughts. He was unsure if he had enough strength to win
the coming battle, commanding a smaller army in 397 and was facing a superior
Carthaginian force and did not wish to confront Himilco under unfavorable
circumstances. Dionysius tried to entice the Sikans and Elymians to leave the
area and enter his service unsuccessfully, and when Halikyai switched sides,
Dionysius gave up on diplomacy and fell back to Syracuse.
Aftermath:
With the retreat of Dionysius, Carthaginians regained control over western
Sicily, which Dionysius would not be able to eradicate during his lifetime. His
failure to secure a base in western Sicily gave back the initiative to Himilco,
who unsuccessfully besieged Syracuse after sacking Messina and defeating the
Greek fleet at Catana, ensuring that western Sicily remain mostly free of the
ravages of war. Segesta remained a dependent vassal of Carthage until the Punic
Wars and was not touched by the wars between Carthage and Syracuse until 307 ,
when the city switched sides made common cause with Agathocles, tyrant of
Syracuse, probably because of excessive Punic demands to meet their war
expenses and the success of the Greeks in Africa and Sicily against Carthage.
This backfired when Agathocles sacked the city after his demands were refused.
Segesta again became part of the Carthaginian hegemony in 305 when Carthage and
Syracuse agreed to terms. Segesta defected to Pyrrhus in 278 , was back in
Punic hands by 275 and finally defected to Rome in 263 .
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