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The Seleucid army was the army of the
Seleucid Empire, one of the numerous Hellenistic states that emerged after the
death of Alexander the Great. As with the other major Hellenistic armies, the
Seleucid army fought primarily in the Greco-Macedonian style, with its main
body being the phalanx. The phalanx was a large, dense formation of men armed
with small shields and a long pike called the sarissa. This form of fighting
had been developed by the Macedonian army in the reign of Philip II of Macedon
and his son Alexander the Great. Alongside the phalanx, the Seleucid armies
used a great deal of native and mercenary troops to supplement their Greek
forces, which were limited due to the distance from the Seleucid rulers'
Macedonian homeland.
Manpower:
The distance from Greece put a strain on the Seleucid military system, as it
was primarily based around the recruitment of Greeks as the key segment of the
army. In order to increase the population of Greeks in their kingdom, the
Seleucid rulers created military settlements. There were two main periods in
the establishment of settlements, firstly under Seleucus I Nicator and
Antiochus I Soter and then under Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The military settlers
were given land, "varying in size according to rank and arm of
service'.[1] They were settled in 'colonies of an urban character, which at
some point could acquire the status of a polis".[2] Unlike the Ptolemaic
military settlers, who were known as Kleruchoi, the Seleucid settlers were
called Katoikoi. The settlers would maintain the land as their own and in
return they would serve in the Seleucid army when called. The majority of
settlements were concentrated in Lydia, northern Syria, the upper Euphrates and
Media. The Greeks were dominant in Lydia, Phrygia and Syria.[3] For example,
Antiochus III brought Greeks from Euboea, Crete and Aetolia and settled them in
Antioch.[4] These settlers would be used to form the Seleucid phalanx and
cavalry units, with picked men put into the kingdom's guards regiments. The
rest of the Seleucid army would consist of a large number of native and
mercenary troops, who would serve as light auxiliary troops. However, by the
time of the Daphne Parade in 166 BC, the large number of ethnic contingents
were missing from the army of Antiochus IV. This was most likely due to the
army reform that was undertaken by Antiochus IV.[5] In his reign, Antiochus IV
had built 15 new cities "and their association with the increased
phalanx... at Daphne is too obvious to be ignored".[6]
Infantry:
Argyraspides:
Main article: Argyraspides:
The principle guard infantry of the Seleucid army was the 'Silver-Shields', or
Argyraspides. They were a permanently embodied guard unit, which was formed
from the sons of military settlers.[7] They were armed in the Macedonian manner
with a sarissa and fought in the phalanx formation, much like the other
Hellenistic armies of the time. The Argyraspides were probably a corps of about
10,000 men[8] who were picked from the entire kingdom to serve in this unit.[9]
The whole kingdom may mean 'regions like Syria and Mesopotamia, which were the
nucleus of the Seleucid Kingdom, there was a greater density of Greek
soldiers'.[10]
'Romanized' infantry In 166 BC, at the Daphne Parade under Antiochus IV, the
Argyraspides corps is only seen to be 5,000 strong. However, 5,000 troops armed
in the Roman fashion are present and they are described as being in the prime
of their life, perhaps denoting their elite nature.[11] It is possible that the
missing 5,000 men of the Argyraspides were the 5,000 'Romanized' infantry
marching alongside them. The training of a segment of the royal guard in
"Roman' methods was probably down to several factors. Firstly, Antiochus
IV had 'spent part of his early life in Rome and had acquired rather an
excessive admiration for Rome's power and methods".[12] Secondly, the
future wars that the Seleucids might be fighting would probably be in the
eastern satrapies against mobile enemies and other large areas of land.
Training troops in this way would add to the overall efficiency and capability
of the army and make it more manoeuvrable. Indeed, the 'Romanized' troops are
seen facing the Maccabees at the Battle of Beth Zechariah in 162 BC.[13]
Thirdly, the defeat of the Antigonids at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC was a
great culture shock, showing the complete destruction of the Macedonian
military system at the hands of the Roman legion. It has been suggested that
the fact that these 5,000 men are marching at the head of the army was meant to
show Antiochus IV's intention of reforming the entire Seleucid army along Roman
lines, though whether or not this complete reform actually took place is
unknown.[14] The true extent of the adoption of Roman techniques is unknown,
some have suggested that the infantry are in fact more likely to be
Thureophoroi or Thorakitai, troops armed with an oval shield of the Celtic
type, a thrusting spear and javelins.[15]
Chrysaspides and Chalkaspides The majority of the Seleucid phalanx was probably
formed by the two corps that are mentioned in the Daphne Parade of 166 BC,
namely the 10,000 Chrysaspides (Greek: ???s?sp?de? 'Golden-Shields') and the
5,000 Chalkaspides ('Bronze-Shields').[16] Little else is known specifically
about them, although they may have been present at the battle of Beth-Zachariah
in 162.[17] Citizen militia There was a militia, at least in Syria. They were
from the Greek cities who had no specific role within the regular army. We do
not find the militias involved in the great campaigns before the general
decline of the kingdom, which occurred in the latter half of the second century
BC. By then, many important military settlements had fallen to Pergamon and
Parthia. In 148 BC, at the Battle of Azotos against the Maccabees, the Seleucid
army was called the 'Power of the Cities', probably owing to the high
proportion of citizen militia mobilized from the coastal cities.[18] Citizens
of Antioch played a major role in the overthrowing of Demetrius II Nicator.
Demetrius, having taken the throne, decided to disband the majority of the
regular army and reduce its pay by a large amount.[19] In place of the regular
army, Demetrius' power rested with his Greek, especially Cretan, mercenaries in
what was known as the 'Cretan Tyranny'.[20][21][22] Not long after, the
majority of the citizen militia was wiped out in Antiochus VII's disastrous
Parthian War of 129 BC.[23] The militia were most likely armed and fought in
the style of the Thureophoroi.[24]
Allied, vassal and mercenary infantry Due to the lack of Greeks in the lands of
the Seleucid kingdom, the use of allied, vassal and mercenary troops was great.
They were often used as light and auxiliary troops, supplementing the phalanx
and cavalry. Large numbers of native contingents fought at the Battle of Raphia
in 217 BC. Among them were 10,000 Arab infantry, 5,000 Dahai, Carmanians and
Cilicians.[25] Certain ethnic contingents, be they vassal or mercenary, were of
considerable use. For example, Thracian mercenaries along with Mysian,
Cilician, Lycian, and Vassal troops from the mountainous areas of the empire
were used by Antiochus III in conjunction with Thorakitai in his storming of
the Elburz range in 210 BC.[26] The Persian and Iranian troops were most likely
of a higher professional military standing than most of the other contingents,
as they are seen on garrison duty throughout the empire.[27] In the review at
Daphne in 166 BC, the large numbers of allied and vassal contingents are
missing. They were of doubtful reliability, usefulness and efficiency. So much
so that Appian blamed them for the defeat at the Battle of Magnesia in 190
BC.[28] The absence of auxiliaries from the army of Antiochus IV may have
contributed to its strength. Making up for the loss of ethnic contingents, the
army was supplemented by mercenaries, who were more experienced and better
trained. The Thracian and Galatian mercenaries at Daphne would have been of
good use in campaigns in the rough, hilly terrain. For example, the arms and
equipment of the Thracian troops allowed the individual soldier greater
mobility and freer action in hand-to-hand combat than a phalangite could
adopt.[29]
Cavalry Unlike the more westerly powers, like the Romans and other Greek
states, where infantry dominated the battlefield, in the 'vast spaces to the
east, the horse cultures were more influential'.[30] Speed and mobility were
the key, especially when dealing with foes like the Parthians and the
Greco-Bactrians. The Parthian style of warfare was based around heavily
armoured cavalrymen, Cataphracts, and horse archers, which were used in hit and
run style tactics. The eastern style of horse warfare would have a deep impact
in the reign of Antiochus III, when he armed his heavy cavalry along Parthian
lines. However, unfortunately for the Seleucids, their main rivals, the Romans
and Ptolemies, used armies that were centered around a core of good infantry.
In this sense, there was a sense of the overvaluing of cavalry as an offensive
arm. Antiochus III was an excellent cavalry commander, his assault at Tapuria
in 208 BC as described by Polybius[31] could almost act as a 'military treatise
on how to conduct a cavalry battle'.[32] However, Antiochus III was not as apt
when dealing with infantry, be it Greek or Roman. At Magnesia, Antiochus'
disregard for his phalanx and his misdirected cavalry charge led to his defeat.
The Seleucid cavalry, after the introduction of the Cataphract, can be
sub-divided into several categories. Firstly, there were the heavy cavalry of
which there were Kataphraktoi (armoured) and Aphraktoi (unarmoured). The
Aphraktoi were divided into two groups, lancer and missile troops. The lancers,
who performed the job of heavy cavalry before the Cataphract, were known by
numerous names, for example dorataphoroi, sarissaphoroi, kontophoroi,
xystophoroi and lonchophoroi. Xystophoroi and lonchophoroi were mentioned
specifically by Titus Flamininus whilst in discussion with the Achaeans.[33]
The light cavalry was used to skirmish, so troops such as those that fought in
the Tarentine style were common within this category, although there were
numerous native contingents too.
Agema, Hetairoi and Nisaioi Main articles: Agema and Hetairoi Along with the
guard infantry unit, there were two guard cavalry regiments, each 1,000
strong.[34] These were the Agema (the 'Guards') and the Hetairoi
('Companions'). The Hetairoi were recruited from the younger generation of
military settlers and acted as the standing guard cavalry unit of the army,
serving in peace and in war.[35] However, it seems that writers referred to
them by several names other than just the 'companions'; the basilike ile
('royal squadron' or 'regia ala' according to Livy), and the hippos hetairike
('horse companions').[36][37] Bar-Kochva presumes that from this their full
title may well have been the 'royal ala of the companions'.[38] The Agema
'consisted of Medes, selected men, with a mixture of horsemen of many races
from the same part of the world.[39] Both corps of cavalry could escort the
king into battle, or both could be brigaded together into one unit of
2,000.[40] Both units were armed with a xyston, a cavalry lance not so
dissimilar to the sarissa. They were also equipped with a cuirass and helmet.
After the introduction of the Cataphract, the Hetairoi were given similar but
lighter protection. As for the Agema, they were probably equipped the same as
the cataphracts.[41] Another regiment of horse that was similarly armed to the
cataphracts was the Nisian cavalry (Nisaioi), which was composed of Iranians.
Epilektoi At the Daphne parade, there was also a regiment of 'picked', known as
Epilektoi, horsemen, numbering 1,000. The Epilektoi were most likely recruited
from the city of Larissa, which was founded by colonists from Larissa on the
Greek mainland. After the loss of Media, the main recruiting ground for the
Agema, to the Parthians, the Epilektoi were given the title and role of the
Agema by Alexander Balas.[42]
Kataphraktoi Main article: Cataphract Despite the prospect of a mobile cavalry
phalanx, the cavalry still faced problems. The xyston was still too short to
meet the sarissa phalanx head on. The weight of their armour restricted
movement, but the elimination of a shield for protection made the rider and
horse more vulnerable. The desire to meet the phalanx head on and the need for
protection was remedied after the anabasis of Antiochus III to the eastern
satrapies in 210-206 BC. At this time, Antiochus came into contact with the
Parthian cavalry, of which some were heavily armed with scale armour for both
the rider and horse and longer lances known as a kontos. The kontos 'almost
equalled the phalangite sarissa'.[43] The cataphract had numerous advantages
though. First, their armour provided protection from missiles, arrows, spears
and pikes. Second, the kontos allowed them to block an enemy advance and attack
from further away. For example, the Seleucid cataphracts were able to beat the
Ptolemaic cavalry and attack their phalanx at Panium in 200 BC with relative
ease. Nevertheless, they still had their problems. Like the phalanx, an attack
on their flank could prove fatal for the rider and these difficulties were
exploited by infantry 'which assaulted the cataphracts from the flanks,
attacking body parts of the riders and horses that were unprotected by
armour'.[44] The cataphracts could also have their kontos grabbed from them or
be knocked off their horse. In order to remedy this, semi-heavy cavalry were
needed to watch their flanks. While the Seleucid cataphracts were certainly of
Greek or Persian descent, Livy describes a contingent of 3,000 cavalry
"clad in mail armour and known as 'cataphracti'" present at the
Battle of Magnesia, standing next to a contingent of Galatian infantry,[45]
which Appian later also describe being of Galatian descent.[46] Politikoi Along
with the citizen militia infantry, there were also militia cavalry units
recruited in the cities, known as Politikoi. This cavalry consisted of those
richest citizens who did not hold the legal status of 'Macedonians'.[47]
Citizen cavalry of this sort was seen at the Daphne parade and, in this case,
was probably just from Antioch and not collected from all of the coastal
cities. The Politikoi was probably not organised into regiments; instead, it
was likely that it comprised a collection of separate squadrons, with each
squadron having its own distinctive dress and equipment.[48]
Tarantine cavalry The Seleucids employed a number of Tarantine cavalry, either
as mercenaries or – more likely – equipped and trained in the
"Tarantine fashion". They were present at the Battle of Panium[49]
and the Battle of Magnesia.[50] Dromedaries Camels are attested in use in the
Seleucid army at the battle of Magnesia, but their small number (500) suggests
they were not a regular addition.[51] According to Xenophon, their scent scared
off horses.[52] Allied, vassal and mercenary cavalry The Seleucids fielded
several types of mercenary, vassal and allied cavalry. At the Battle of
Magnesia Antiochus deployed Dahae horse archers, Gallograecian (Galatian)
cavalry and camel-borne Arab archers.[53]
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