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He was an Athenian politician and general. (402 - 319) He was
considered among the greats by both Neposand
Plutarch.
His nickname was The Good) as an Athenian statesman and strategos, and the
subject of one of Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Phocion was a successful
politician of Athens. He believed that extreme frugality was the condition for
virtue and lived in accord with this; consequently, he was popularly known as
"The Good." Further, people thought that Phocion was the most honest
member of the Athenian Assembly.
However, his tendency to strong opposition relegated him to a solitary stand
against the entire political class. Nonetheless, by both his individual
prestige and his military expertise, which was acquired by the side of
Chabrias, Phocion was
elected strategos numerous times, with a record 45 terms in office. Thus,
during most of his 84 years of life, Phocion occupied the most important
Athenian offices. In the late 320s, when Macedon gained complete control of
Athens (under Antipater), though somewhat compromised, Phocion defended both
the urban center and its citizens. He even refused to comply with some
dishonorable requests of the enemy. However, his stance put Phocion in
opposition to both most free Athenians and
Polyperchon, the next
ruler of Macedonia, who sent him back to Athens, where he was sentenced to
death for treason by the then-restored popular assembly.
Early life:
Phocion's father operated a lathe, producing iron tools. His grandfather was
perhaps the trierarch Phocion who was killed at the battle of Cynossema in 411.
During his youth, Phocion sought to study liberal notions. He was both Plato's
pupil and Xenocrates' friend. Through such philosophical education, Phocion was
of virtuous moral character and he used to give prudent advice. This academic
training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier rather than as a
philosopher that he first came to notice. His austere lifestyle The Athenians
recognized that Phocion was honest and he was respected as such. He had a
reserved demeanor; he was never seen either laughing or weeping. Indeed, he
appeared quite severe, and was often feared by those meeting him for first
time. Phocion believed that the frugality proved his own virtue. He was never
seen at the public baths. Both on the Athenian streets and on campaign, he
walked around wearing a simple tunic and without shoes. He only made an
exception in extreme cold, wearing a cloak, so other soldiers said that Phocion
gave a meteorological indication. Throughout his life Phocion lived in a home
which was humble, with spare decoration, located at the Melite [el]
neighborhood, southward from the Acropolis. His wife cooked their everyday
bread, and Phocion drew water, pumping it with his own hands. Phocion was first
married to a woman whose father was a maker of clay statues. His second wife
was famous in Athens for her humility. Once she said that her sole adornment
was Phocion's twentieth strategos appointment. Phocion's son was Phocus. During
his youth he became licentious and addicted to partying and wine, so Phocion
sent him off to Sparta (which was famous for frugal lifestyles) for a period.
Early military service to Athens:
The young Phocion enrolled with Chabrias' armies, in many campaigns, gaining
much experience. Chabrias esteemed him highly because Phocion helped to
compensate for his turbulent personality. Reciprocally, Phocion was commended
for the chief actions of his campaigns, and thus gained much fame, among the
Athenians. In 376, Phocion's participation was crucial in the Athenian naval
victory of Naxos, where he commanded the leading left wing. Since it was the
first clear Athenian victory since the
Peloponnesian War,
the Athenians greatly honoured its military leaders. The battle took place
on the main day of the Eleusinian Mysteries and was remembered for years. After
Chabrias died, Phocion took care of his family and particularly of his son,
Ctesippus. However, Phocion could barely cope with Ctesippus' rather slow
character. At last he exclaimed "O Chabrias, did ever a man show so much
gratitude as I do in putting up with your son"
Role in the Athenian Assembly
Publicly, Phocion was recognized as the most austere and wisest Athenian
politician. However, in the Athenian Assembly, he had an attitude of opposition
to most of his peers, and criticism from Phocion was often unpopular with the
members. Once, an oracle was brought from Delphi. It said that one man would
confront the rest of the politicians, whose opposing stand would be
homogeneous. Phocion then rose, exclaiming: "I am that person who
disagrees." Once, after Phocion was applauded by the delegates he asked
his friends: "Have I unwittingly said something vile?" Demosthenes
called him "the chopper of my speeches." On another occasion, Phocion
spoke but was not heeded and not permitted to continue. He said: "You may
compel me to act against my wishes, but you shall never force me to speak
against my judgment." On the other hand, Phocion never harmed anyone he
disliked. Indeed, he was so kind that he helped a political rival if he was in
some difficulty. Additionally, Phocion was unhappy that Athenian public
functions had become split between two groups. Whereas the politicians dealt
eminently with civilian matters, military issues were attended to exclusively
by the generals. He campaigned for Athens to regain its old tradition, with
politicians who could manage both sets of affairs. Parrying the eloquence of
his opponents, Phocion resorted both to wise concepts and pithy sayings, which
were famous in antiquity. Yet he avoided demagogic style and his tone was harsh
and demanding, with few embellishments. Another distinguishing quality was that
Phocion compressed many ideas into short phrases. Before any presentation, he
spent much time considering how to shorten it. One of his friends said
"You seem to be thinking about something, Phocion", and he replied
"Yes, I am considering whether I can shorten the speech I am going to
make."
Anecdotes
When someone made a joke about his severe visage, and some of the local
politicians he was not on good terms with laughed in response, he remarked,
"My frown never yet made any of you sad, but these jolly men have given
you plenty of sorrow." Demosthenes once said to Phocion that he might be
killed some day, if the people became irrational. Phocion responded: "Yes;
however, they would kill you if they came to their senses." On an occasion
when Phocion was being heavily attacked by the entire assembly, he requested
Archibiades, a man who liked imitating the Spartan lifestyle, to support his
stand. However, the man took the popular side, declaring against Phocion as
well. Phocion then grabbed his Spartan-style beard, saying, "It's time for
you to shave." Another assemblyman, Aristogeiton, was famous because he
usually called for war. However, when a muster was called he happened to appear
wearing bandages around his legs and walking with a cane. Phocion got up and
shouted to the enrolling officer: "Put down Aristogeiton too, as lame and
unfit for service." Some time afterward, Aristogeiton was jailed and at
his request, Phocion visited him often. His friends criticized him for it, but
he replied: "Come on! There is no better place to visit
Aristogeiton." During a boundary dispute with Thebes, Phocion urged
negotiations, while most Athenians called for war. He argued, "You had
better carry on the contest with the weapons you use best: your tongues."
Polyeuctos, an out-of-shape Athenian politician, once made a speech advocating
war with Philip II of Macedon, stopping repeatedly to drink water and catch his
breath. During one such pause Phocion remarked, "Here is a fine man to
lead us into war. What do you think he'll do when he is carrying his shield and
armor to meet the enemy, if giving a speech has nearly killed him with
exhaustion?"
Record-breaking strategos
Although Phocion never canvassed the Athenians for it, he was appointed
strategos a record-breaking 45 times. Sometimes he did not attend the election
meetings of the Agora and the people were forced to seek him afterward.
However, he accepted the appointment on every occasion.
Management of the Second Athenian League
Phocion was sent to the Aegean Sea by Chabrias, to collect the regional
tributes for the Second Athenian
League. As representatives of Athens were unpopular among their 'subject'
allies, Phocion had been issued 20 warships. However, he declined to bring them
along, commenting that "if he was being sent to fight the islanders he
would need a larger force, but if he was visiting them as allies, one ship was
enough." So he departed just with his own trireme. At each city, Phocion
negotiated each fee so diplomatically that he returned home with a large allied
fleet, which protected their treasury. The allies even organized colourful
parades in his honour.
Military service to Persia in Cyprus Between 351–349
Phocion helped the Persian Emperor
Artaxerxes III to
subdue the Cypriot rebellion.
Campaign in Euboea against Macedonia
In 349, Philip II of Macedon invaded Euboea and established many local tyrants.
Phocion went there with a small force, expecting to win over the Euboeans by
diplomatic means. But Philip had organised a strong bribe network which
corrupted the local politicians. Phocion established his camp on a hill outside
the city of Tamynae, and ordered his men to ignore those who neglected their
duties because of Macedonian bribes. He explained: "They are useless to us
and furthermore, they will get in the way of those that are loyal." In
348, with Macedonian support, the Euboean general Callias brought his armies to
attack the camp. Phocion decided to offer many religious sacrifices before
battle, until the gods were favourable. However such activities demanded much
time, and the forces of the Euboean mercenaries attacked the enemy, their
general thinking Phocion was a coward and hoping to force his hand. The
Athenian cavalry was ill-disciplined, and not wishing to remain idle, raced out
to meet the enemy, but with no formation and in scattered groups, so that they
were easily beaten and routed. The Euboeans defeated the mercenaries and they
began ravaging the Athenian camp. After Phocion could interpret his sacrifices
favorably (or alternatively to draw the enemy in), he led his main lines into
battle while the enemy where surging up the palisade thinking they had defeated
Phocion's forces. This resulted in Phocion cutting down and routing the enemy
forces. Just with his best men while the main body of the army rallied some of
the previously dispersed troops, Phocion engaged the enemy's chief divisions,
in a ferocious battle. Phocion was victorious but then freed the captured
enemies, fearing the Athenians might treat them too harshly. Subsequently,
Phocion captured the fort of Zaretra, which was at Euboea island's narrowest
portion. Then, he returned to Athens. Campaign to repel Philip II from
Byzantium
With his armies, Philip II reached the Dardanelles, expecting successively to
seize Chersonesus, Perinthus, and Byzantium. The Athenians sent
Chares to confront him but
the Greek colonies reacted negatively to him, as usual. Consequently, the force
could do nothing except roam around the region. The Athenians were so angry
that they wanted to cancel the expedition. Phocion interceded, saying:
"You shouldn't be angry at our allies. You should blame our generals,
because of whom we are feared even by those who need us most." Then, in
339, Phocion was sent to the region. To Phocion's good fortune, it transpired
that Leon, a personal friend from the academy and a Byzantine well known for
his courage, personally guaranteed the Athenian's good faith. Thus,
particularly there, the new expedition was amicably received and, even though
Phocion had planned to camp outside the walls, was welcomed into the city,
where the Athenian soldiers acted with exemplary discipline and courtesy. The
Athenian soldiers also fought bravely, defending the site. Then, Phocion
attacked the Macedonians around the region, liberating many cities, which
expelled their Macedonian garrisons. Eventually, Macedonia was forced to
withdraw from the region (temporarily, as it turned out). However, Phocion was
wounded so he returned to Athens.
Mission to aid Megara
Secretly, the Megarians requested military help from Phocion. Phocion arrived
with his army and was warmly received. He erected two long walls, from Megara
to the seaport of Nisaea. The Megarians felt so safe that they allied with
Athens.
Confrontation with Macedonia Subjection of Athens by Philip II
Regarding Macedonia, Phocion's moderate stand was to avoid a confrontation
which might be catastrophic for Athens. Although he had been successful in his
campaigns against it, he had come to view Macedon as a rising power, and to
doubt the wisdom of an Athenian foreign policy too strongly opposed to it.
However, the Athenians preferred the firebrand orators who desired war. Among
them were Demosthenes, Lycurgus, and Hypereides. They were particularly
emboldened because Athens seemed to have sufficient military power. Philip, on
the other hand, preferred not to go to war with Athens; he hoped instead the
Athenians would consent to put their strong navy at his disposal for use
against Persia. Phocion was touring the Aegean colonies when Athens commanded
its generals to confront Philip. He came back and addressed the assembly,
opposing this course of action. A lawyer asked him if he was defying the
people's will, and Phocion responded: "Yes, even though I know that if
there is war I will be your boss, and if there is peace you will be mine."
Unfortunately, Athens could not be persuaded to reverse its decision. When the
strategy to be used against Philip came under discussion, the question arose as
to whether it would be better to engage in battle close to home or at a
distance. Phocion advised, "Let us not ask where we should fight, but how
we may win. That will be the way to keep war at a distance. If we are beaten in
a distant battle, it will soon be at our doors." In the event, Athens and
her allies suffered a crushing defeat at
Chaeronea, in
338. Then the Athenian aristocracy supported the nomination of Phocion for
strategos, and the Areopagus passed it. Phocion delayed the inevitable
garrisoning of defeated Athens as long as possible. Initially, he favored
negotiating directly with Philip, who he thought could be expected to be
lenient, and opposed having Athens join a congress of Greek states and be
forced to accept Macedonia's common terms of peace, which were not yet known.
Demades, however, offered a contrary motion, and the Athenians approved it.
They soon regretted their decision, since at the congress Philip obliged the
Athenians to provide him with both ships and cavalry. When the Athenians
expressed remorse, Phocion said: "I was opposed to the motion, fearing
this. Now the deed is done, and we must make the best of it. We shouldn't be
without hope, though. Our ancestors suffered similar episodes of subjection,
but they carried on, and because of that both Athens and Greece as a whole
survived." Later, after Philip died in 336, Phocion banned all celebratory
sacrifice, saying: "The army which defeated us at Chaeronea has lost just
one man."
Relations with Alexander
When the new Macedonian king, Alexander, was about to attack Thebes,
Demosthenes protested impudently. Phocion interceded, with some lines of Homer:
"Foolhardy man, why provoke one whose temper is already savage? Why
provoke this Macedonian who is full of limitless ambition? When there is a
holocaust on our borders, do you wish to spread the flames to our city as well,
by provoking him further? My whole object in taking up the burdens of this
office is to prevent this, and I shall not allow my fellow citizens to destroy
themselves, even if they wish it." Thebes was destroyed and Alexander
demanded the handover of the most anti-Macedonian Athenians, among whom was
Demosthenes. The assembly called upon Phocion repeatedly by name until he stood
on his feet. Beside him, Phocion called Nicocles, his best friend, saying:
"We have been brought to a pass. I would deliver Nicocles if they might
request it. We must reduce the wrath of our conqueror, rather than oppose
him." Nonetheless, the Athenian Assembly passed a decree denying the
demand. Then, when Alexander refused to see other Athenian ambassadors, Phocion
was sent. As Phocion had been regarded as a respectable person by Philip, his
son received him attentively, listening to his proposals. Alexander was
persuaded to relent in his demand for the opposing Athenian politicians (even
though they were enemies of Phocion as well). Indeed, Alexander asked for
advice and Phocion said: "If Macedonia wishes peace, it should abandon the
war. If Macedonia desires glory, it should turn against Persia, instead of
oppressing Greece." Eventually, Phocion was favored by the king, even over
many Macedonians. After Alexander defeated the Persian Emperor Darius III,
Phocion was among the few individuals who were saluted with the word
"greetings" by the king in his correspondence. During this period,
Phocion maintained his policy of peace. Alexander made a request for a number
of Athenian warships which Phocion supported, saying: "You should either
possess superior strength or side with those that do."
Athenian rebellion and the
Lamian War against Antipater
In 323, rumors of Alexander's death reached Athens. Phocion feared any hasty
reaction and he commented: "If he is dead now, he will be dead tomorrow as
well. We must be cautious before celebrating." The Macedonian leaders
began fighting for the crown; Antipater was the candidate with the best
prospects. The Athenians hastened to rebel against Macedonia. Leosthenes, the
rebel leader, shared the charge of strategos with Phocion. This was the
beginning of the Lamian War although, as always, Phocion opposed it.
Leosthenes inquired
about which historical achievements Phocion had attained. Phocion responded:
"Do you think it is nothing then that our citizens are all buried at home
in their own tombs?" Other assemblymen asked him whether the military
preparations were enough or not. Phocion said: "They will be sufficient
for a sprint. However, if it is to be a long race, then I fear for Athens for
she has no reserves of either men, supplies or warships." Phocion was
ordered to lead the military actions against Boeotia. Cleverly, he called on
all Athenians under the age of 60 years to enroll. The elderly protested but
Phocion responded: "This is fair! Although I am 80 years old, I will lead
the attack." This calmed the people down. On the other front, Antipater
retreated and he was surrounded by the Greeks, around Lamia. The Athenians were
exultant. Phocion said: "I would have wished being the general who
achieved this victory. Nonetheless, still I would have counseled as
before." As more good news arrived, Phocion said: "I am wondering
when the good news will end." Leosthenes soon died in fighting Macedonian
forces making a sally out of besieged Lamia. A new strategos, Antiphilus, was
appointed, to counterbalance Phocion. In 322, Phocion hurriedly led a force of
Athenians against Micion, who had disembarked at Rhamnus with an army composed
of Macedonians and mercenaries. So many individuals came to him with military
advice that he exclaimed, "Heracles, how many generals we have, and how
few soldiers!" Then he attacked the enemy and utterly routed them, killing
Micion. Simultaneously, the Greeks defeated the Macedonians, at Thessaly.
However, Craterus brought
a large army over from Asia, and the Greeks were defeated at
Crannon, also in
322. Antipater soon approached Athens. Demades, who was another peace advocate,
was the only other Athenian leader who didn't flee. He proposed that an embassy
should negotiate peace. Phocion commented: "If I had been listened to
before, the Athenians wouldn't need to be discussing such things." At
Thebes, both met Antipater, whose invasion of Attica was expected imminently.
Phocion was well received. When Phocion asked Antipater to cease his advance
and listen to peace proposals, Craterus protested that it was unfair that the
army should sit idle in allied lands, damaging their economies, while the enemy
lands could be so easily ravaged. Antipater's lone demand was the discretional
surrendering of Athens. In a second encounter, at which Antipater scorned the
presence of Xenocrates, Phocion heard the new Macedonian terms of peace: Many
Athenian politicians such as Demosthenes would be turned over to the
Macedonians. The Athenian suffrage would be restricted to landowners. A
garrison would be established in Munychia, the neighborhood next to Piraeus.
Athens would pay both the war expenses and an extra fine. Phocion argued
against the garrisoning unsuccessfully. However, Phocion knew its Macedonian
commander, Menyllus, personally. Soon, Antipater proved that he was one of the
worst Macedonian tyrants in history. 12,000 Athenians were disfranchised and
many people were forced to migrate to Thrace. Phocion helped by securing some
exiles citizenship in the Peloponnesus area. Phocion became the virtual ruler
of Athens and he strove to keep the peace. By his influence, only just
individuals were appointed magistrates, and people who were too rebellious
weren't allowed to hold public office. However, Phocion refused when Antipater
requested him to do dishonorable things, commenting: "I can't be both his
friend and his flatterer." Additionally, he protected the refugee
Harpalus.
Loss of popularity
The aftermath of these events was that Phocion became quite unpopular. He was
accused of delivering Athens to Antipater. The Athenians were particularly
angry about the fate of Demosthenes, who had been banished, dying soon after.
Phocion had been supported by him early in his political career, even in some
capital trials. Thus, it seemed like a personal betrayal.
Crisis of Polyperchon
In 319, before his death, Antipater chose that, instead of his own son,
Cassander, General
Polyperchon would be the next Macedonian ruler. Soon, Cassander began
conspiring against Polyperchon. Thus, Cassander disposed that, at Munychia,
Nicanor replaced Menyllus, with the order of controlling Attica. In Athens,
Phocion was accused of helping such concealments of Cassander and, by
deliberately delaying military action against Nicanor, made it possible for
Nicanor to take the Piraeus, but he slighted such rumors. Indeed, Phocion met
Nicanor, requesting a mild treatment for the Athenians. Also, Phocion convinced
Nicanor to host the local games. The Macedonian spent lavishly on the event.
Athenians were divided between two parties. Phocion belonged to the oligarchic
party of the rich minority, which was on Cassander's side. The majority of the
citizens however supported Polyperchon, because he promised to restore
democracy, allow Athenian exiles (60% of all Athenian citizens before the
Lamian War) to return, and remove the occupying Macedonian garrison. Still as
strategos, Phocion supported Nicanor openly. He spurned an insistent rumor that
Nicanor would attempt invading Athens. At Piraeus, Phocion was holding a
conference with Nicanor when Athenian soldiers attempted to jail the Macedonian
general. Phocion helped his escape, declaring: "I don't believe that he
would harm Athens although, still, I would defend him if he may wrong us."
Subsequently, the Athenian Assembly commanded that Phocion should attack
Nicanor, at Munychia. Initially, Phocion refused. Then, effectively, Nicanor
used the troops of the Macedonian garrison to seize Piraeus, with Phocion's
compliance. When Phocion decided to attack them, the Athenian soldiers had
already rebelled against his command as strategos. In 318, Polyperchon decided
to realign Athenian politics in his own interests. Favoring the popular party,
he restored all liberties. His son, Alexander, arrived in Athens with a
Macedonian army, while Athenian exiles (more than half of the entire citizen
body) returned home, expecting revenge against the politicians who had betrayed
the democracy. Polyperchon expected that Phocion would be forced to leave the
urban center. Moreover, the Macedonians would seize complete control of Athens.
Phocion was immediately deposed as strategos by an informal assembly.
Death sentence by the Athenian Assembly
The Athenian orator Agnonides accused Phocion of treachery, for he had refused,
and then delayed, the attack Nicanor. Phocion decided to meet Polyperchon
personally. Phocion gathered an entourage, composed of politicians who were
well regarded by the Macedonian ruler. However, their voyage was delayed by the
illness of one member. During that interval, Agnonides proposed another embassy
to accuse Phocion formally before the regent, and the Athenian Assembly passed
the motion. Both delegations arrived simultaneously, before the Macedonian
throne, at Phocis. Although the regent arrested and tortured one politician of
Phocion's cortege, he expected both groups to be heard out. As many people
attempted to speak simultaneously, Agnonides proposed that they all be put into
a single cage and taken back to Athens to decide the issue there. Polyperchon
smiled at that. When Phocion started speaking, the ruler began interrupting him
so annoyingly that Phocion struck the floor with his staff and refused to utter
another word. Then, Polyperchon ordered the detention of Phocion and his
associates; while those closest to him were also seized, most of his embassy
escaped from the court. By a written bidding, Polyperchon announced that the
treacherous prisoners would be judged by the now free people of Athens. Phocion
was brought back home where he was carted straight to the place of judgment.
There, he waited while a massive assembly gathered. The Athenian archons
conducted the proceedings. Any Athenian could participate in it, including
slaves, foreigners, and those formerly disfranchised. The letter from
Polyperchon was read while the entire multitude cried out against the
oligarchs, who were the enemies of freedom. Phocion demanded: "Do you wish
to condemn us justly? Then, you should listen to our defense." Phocion
insisted: "I admit that I have wronged and deserve condemnation for my
political actions. However, these other individuals don't." Some people
responded that they should be condemned for being his friends. Then Phocion
gave up. Subsequently, Agnonides read the condemning motion. In unison, the
whole crowd rose up from their seats. Thus, Phocion and ten acquaintances were
sentenced to die by drinking hemlock.
Phocion "The Good"
Phocion's recognized probity bestowed on him the cognomen "The Good".
Phocion could have been extremely wealthy, either by his offices or by the high
commissions which were managed by him. Instead, he was incorruptible and led an
extremely frugal lifestyle. This was despite the fact that the entire Athenian
political class was quite corrupt in that epoch. Philip II offered much money
to him and the Macedonian heralds mentioned the future needs of his sons.
Phocion responded, "If my sons are like me, my farm, which has enabled my
present eminence, will suffice for them. If, instead, they become spoiled by
luxury, I will not be the individual who will be guilty for that."
Alexander sent a delegation to Phocion to offer him 100 talents, but Phocion
refused, saying: "I am an honorable man. I would not harm either
Alexander's reputation or mine." Then, the king further offered him the
government and possession of the cities Cius, Mylasa and Elaea. Phocion
refused, but did request the release of some men enslaved at Sardis, who were
promptly liberated. Soon afterward, Alexander died in 323. In 322, Harpalus
arrived at Athens from Asia, seeking refuge. He tried to give 700 talents to
Phocion, who rejected this offer. Phocion warned that he shouldn't attempt to
corrupt Athens or he would be punished. Consequently, the angry Harpalus turned
the whole assembly against Phocion with his bribes. However, as Phocion kept
helping him (with good will but within ethical limits), Harpalus befriended
Phocion's son-in-law, Charicles. Charicles eventually accepted a lavish
commission to build a tomb for Harpalus' mistress, and was investigated for
corruption. Phocion refused to help him at the trial, saying: "I chose you
to be my son-in-law only for honorable purposes." Phocion also refused
presents from Menyllus, saying: "You are not a better man than Alexander,
so there is no reason to accept your gifts." With his bribes, Menyllus
then became a friend of Phocus.
An Appraisal
Phocion was courageous, mild-mannered, and incorruptible. At the same time, he
betrayed the ideal of pan-Hellenism and Athenian independence, was indifferent
to the sufferings of the majority of his countrymen who were banished from
their native city, and who thus had the best grounds for hating him: It was
precisely during the fifty years of Phocion's political and military influence,
that the Greeks were degraded from a state of freedom, and Athens from
ascendency as well as freedom, into absolute servitude. Insofar as this great
public misfortune can be imputed to any one man, to no one was it more
ascribable than to Phokion... Had he lent his influence to... direct the armed
efforts, of his countrymen, the kings of Macedon might have been kept within
their own limits, and the future history of Greece might have been altogether
different... he did gratuitously all that Philip desired — by nullifying
and sneering down the efforts of Demosthenes... The intense and unanimous wrath
of the people against him... was directed... against his public policy. It was
the last protest of extinct Grecian freedom, speaking as it were from the tomb
in a voice of thunder.
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