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Mycenaean Greece (or the Mycenaean
civilization) was the last phase of the Bronze Age in Ancient Greece, spanning
the period from approximately 1600–1100 BC. It represents the first
advanced and distinctively Greek civilization in mainland Greece with its
palatial states, urban organization, works of art, and writing system.[1][2]
The most prominent site was Mycenae, in the Argolid, after which the culture of
this era is named. Other centers of power that emerged included Pylos, Tiryns,
Midea in the Peloponnese, Orchomenos, Thebes, Athens in Central Greece and
Iolcos in Thessaly. Mycenaean and Mycenaean-influenced settlements also
appeared in Epirus,[3][4] Macedonia,[5][6] on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the
coast of Asia Minor, the Levant,[7] Cyprus[8] and Italy.[9] The Mycenaean
Greeks introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering,
architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the
Mediterranean was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their syllabic script,
the Linear B, offers the first written records of the Indo-European Greek
language, and their religion already included several deities that can also be
found in the Olympic Pantheon. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior
elite society and consisted of a network of palace-centered states that
developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the
head of this society was the king, known as wanax. Mycenaean Greece perished
with the collapse of Bronze Age culture in the eastern Mediterranean, to be
followed by the so-called Greek Dark Ages, a recordless transitional period
leading to Archaic Greece where significant shifts occurred from
palace-centralized to de-centralized forms of socio-economic organization
(including the extensive use of iron).[10] Various theories have been proposed
for the end of this civilization, among them the Dorian invasion or activities
connected to the "Sea Peoples". Additional theories such as natural
disasters and climatic changes have been also suggested. The Mycenaean period
became the historical setting of much ancient Greek literature and mythology,
including the Trojan Epic Cycle.[11]
Chronology:
The Lion Gate, the main entrance of the citadel of Mycenae, 13th century BC
Main article: Helladic period The Bronze Age in mainland Greece is generally
termed as the "Helladic period" by modern archaeologists, after
Hellas, the Greek name for Greece. This period is divided into three
subperiods: The Early Helladic (EH) period (c. 2900–2000 BC) was a time of
prosperity with the use of metals and a growth in technology, economy and
social organization. The Middle Helladic (MH) period (c. 2000–1650 BC)
faced a slower pace of development, as well as the evolution of megaron-type
dwellings and cist grave burials.[2] Finally, the Late Helladic (LH) period (c.
1650–1050 BC) roughly coincides with Mycenaean Greece.[2] The Late
Helladic period is further divided into LHI and LHII, both of which coincide
with the early period of Mycenaean Greece (c. 1650–1425 BC), and LHIII (c.
1425–1050 BC), the period of expansion, decline and collapse of the
Mycenaean civilization. The transition period from the Bronze Age to the Iron
Age in Greece is known as Sub-Mycenaean (c. 1050–1000 BC).
Identity See also: Names of the Greeks and Achaeans (Homer) The decipherment of
the Mycenaean Linear B script, a writing system adapted for the use of the
(Indo-European) Greek language of the Late Bronze Age,[12] demonstrated the
continuity of Greek speech from the second millennium BC into the eighth
century BC when a new Phoenician-derived alphabetic script emerged.[13]
Moreover, it revealed that the bearers of Mycenaean culture were ethnically
connected with the populations that resided in the Greek peninsula after the
end of this cultural period.[14] Lastly, the decipherment marked the advent of
an Indo-European language in the Aegean region in contrast to unrelated prior
languages spoken in adjoining areas.[15] Various collective terms for the
inhabitants of Mycenaean Greece were used by Homer in his 8th-century BC epic,
the Iliad, in reference to the Trojan War,[16] supposed to have happened in the
late 13th – early 12th century BC when a coalition of small Greek states
under the king of Mycenae besieged the walled city of Troy.[citation needed]
Warrior wearing a boar tusk helmet, from a Mycenaean chamber tomb in the
Acropolis of Athens, 14th–13th century BC. Homer interchangeably used the
ethnonyms Achaeans, Danaans and Argives to refer to the besiegers,[16] and
these names appear to have passed down from the time they were in use to the
time when Homer applied them as collective terms in his Iliad.[17] There is an
isolated reference to a-ka-wi-ja-de in the Linear B records in Knossos, Crete
dated to c. 1400 BC, which most probably refers to a Mycenaean (Achaean) state
on the Greek mainland.[18] Egyptian records mention a T(D)-n-j or Danaya
(Tanaju) land for the first time c. 1437 BC, during the reign of Pharaoh
Thutmoses III (r. 1479–1425 BC). This land is geographically defined in an
inscription from the reign of Amenhotep III (r. circa 1390–1352 BC), where
a number of Danaya cities are mentioned, which cover the largest part of
southern mainland Greece.[19] Among them, cities such as Mycenae, Nauplion and
Thebes have been identified with certainty. Danaya has been equated with the
ethnonym Danaoi (Greek: ?a?a??), the name of the mythical dynasty that ruled in
the region of Argos, also used as an ethnonym for the Greek people by
Homer.[19][20] In the official records of another Bronze Age empire, that of
the Hittites in Anatolia, various references from c. 1400 BC to 1220 BC mention
a country named Ahhiyawa.[21][22] Recent scholarship, based on textual
evidence, new interpretations of the Hittite inscriptions, and recent surveys
of archaeological evidence about Mycenaean–Anatolian contacts during this
period, concludes that the term Ahhiyawa must have been used in reference to
the Mycenaean world (land of the Achaeans), or at least to a part of
it.[23][24] This term may have also had broader connotations in some texts,
possibly referring to all regions settled by Mycenaeans or regions under direct
Mycenaean political control.[21] Another similar ethnonym, Ekwesh, in twelfth
century BC Egyptian inscriptions has been commonly identified with the
Ahhiyawans. These Ekwesh were mentioned as a group of the Sea People.[25]
History Shaft grave era (c. 1600–1450 BC) Death mask, known as the Mask of
Agamemnon, Grave Circle A, Mycenae, 16th century BC, probably the most famous
artifact of Mycenaean Greece.[26] Scholars have proposed different theories on
the origins of the Mycenaeans.[1] According to one theory, Mycenaean
civilization reflected the exogenous imposition of archaic Indo-Europeans from
the Eurasian steppe onto the pre-Mycenaean local population.[1] An issue with
this theory, however, entails the very tenuous material and cultural
relationship between Aegean and northern steppe populations during the Bronze
Age.[1] Another theory proposes that Mycenaean culture in Greece dates back to
circa 3000 BC with Indo-European migrants entering a mainly depopulated area;
other hypotheses argue for a date as early as the seventh millennium BC (with
the spread of agriculture) and as late as 1600 BC (with the spread of chariot
technology).[1] In a 2017 genetic study conducted by Lazaridis et al.,
"the Minoans and Mycenaeans were genetically similar [but] the Mycenaeans
differed from Minoans in deriving additional ancestry from an ultimate source
related to the hunter–gatherers of eastern Europe and Siberia, introduced
via a proximal source related to the inhabitants of either the Eurasian steppe
or Armenia."[1] However, Lazaridis et al. admit that their research
"does not settle th[e] debate" on Mycenaean origins.[1] Historian
Bernard Sergent notes that archeology alone is not able to settle the debate,
and that the majority of Hellenists believed Mycenaeans spoke a
non-Indo-European, Minoan language before Linear B was deciphered in 1952.[27]
Notwithstanding the above academic disputes, the mainstream consensus among
modern Mycenologists is that Mycenaean civilization, exemplified in the Shaft
Graves, originated and evolved from the local socio-cultural landscape of the
Early and Middle Bronze Age in mainland Greece with influences from Minoan
Crete.[28][29] Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1600 BC) a
significant increase in the population and the number of settlements
occurred.[30] A number of centers of power emerged in southern mainland Greece
dominated by a warrior elite society,[2][28] while the typical dwellings of
that era were an early type of megaron buildings. Some more complex structures
are classified as forerunners of the later palaces. In a number of sites,
defensive walls were also erected.[31] Meanwhile, new types of burials and more
imposing ones have been unearthed, which display a great variety of luxurious
objects.[30][32] Among the various burial types, the shaft grave became the
most common form of elite burial, a feature that gave the name to the early
period of Mycenaean Greece.[30] Among the Mycenaean elite, deceased men were
usually laid to rest in gold masks and funerary armor, and women in gold crowns
and clothes gleaming with gold ornaments.[33] The royal shaft graves next to
the acropolis of Mycenae, in particular the Grave Circles A and B signified the
elevation of a native Greek-speaking royal dynasty whose economic power
depended on long-distance sea trade.[34] During this period, the Mycenaean
centers witnessed increased contacts with the outside world and especially with
the Cyclades and the Minoan centers in the island of Crete.[2][30] Mycenaean
presence appears to be also depicted in a fresco at Akrotiri, on Thera island,
which possibly displays many warriors in boar's tusk helmets, a feature typical
of Mycenaean warfare.[35] In the early 15th century BC, commerce intensified
with Mycenaean pottery reaching the western coast of Asia Minor, including
Miletus and Troy, Cyprus, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt.[36] At the end of the
Shaft Grave era, a new and more imposing type of elite burial emerged, the
tholos: large circular burial chambers with high vaulted roofs and a straight
entry passage lined with stone.[37]
Koine era (c. 1450 BC–1250 BC) Fresco depicting a female figure in the
acropolis of Mycenae, 13th century BC The eruption of Thera, which according to
archaeological data occurred in c. 1500 BC, resulted in the decline of the
Minoan civilization of Crete.[38] This turn of events gave the opportunity to
the Mycenaeans to spread their influence throughout the Aegean. Around c. 1450
BC, they were in control of Crete itself, including Knossos, and colonized
several other Aegean islands, reaching as far as Rhodes.[39][40] Thus the
Mycenaeans became the dominant power of the region, marking the beginning of
the Mycenaean 'Koine' era (from Greek: ?????, common), a highly uniform culture
that spread in mainland Greece and the Aegean.[41] From the early 14th century
BC, Mycenaean trade began to take advantage of the new commercial opportunities
in the Mediterranean after the Minoan collapse.[40] The trade routes were
expanded further, reaching Cyprus, Amman in the Near East, Apulia in Italy and
Spain.[40] From that time period (c. 1400 BC), the palace of Knossos has
yielded the earliest records of the Greek Linear B script, based on the
previous Linear A of the Minoans. The use of the new script spread in mainland
Greece and offers valuable insight into the administrative network of the
palatial centers. However, the unearthed records are too fragmentary for a
political reconstruction of Bronze Age Greece.[42] Mycenaean panoply, found in
Dendra, Argolid, c. 1400 BC Excavations at Miletus, southwest Asia Minor,
indicate the existence of a Mycenaean settlement there already from c. 1450 BC,
replacing the previous Minoan installations.[43] This site became a sizable and
prosperous Mycenaean center until the 12th century BC.[44] Apart from the
archaeological evidence, this is also attested in Hittite records, which
indicate that Miletos (Milawata in Hittite) was the most important base for
Mycenaean activity in Asia Minor.[45] Mycenaean presence also reached the
adjacent sites of Iasus and Ephesus.[46] Meanwhile, imposing palaces were built
in the main Mycenaean centers of the mainland. The earliest palace structures
were megaron-type buildings, such as the Menelaion in Sparta, Lakonia.[47]
Palaces proper are datable from c. 1400 BC, when Cyclopean fortifications were
erected at Mycenae and nearby Tiryns.[2] Additional palaces were built in Midea
and Pylos in Peloponnese, Athens, Eleusis, Thebes and Orchomenos in Central
Greece and Iolcos, in Thessaly, the latter being the northernmost Mycenaean
center. Knossos in Crete also became a Mycenaean center, where the former
Minoan complex underwent a number of adjustments, including the addition of a
throne room.[48] These centers were based on a rigid network of bureaucracy
where administrative competencies were classified into various sections and
offices according to specialization of work and trades. At the head of this
society was the king, known as wanax (Linear B: wa-na-ka) in Mycenaean Greek
terms. All powers were vested in him, as the main landlord and spiritual and
military leader. At the same time he was an entrepreneur and trader and was
aided by a network of high officials.[49]
Involvement in Asia Minor The presence of Ahhiyawa in western Anatolia is
mentioned in various Hittite accounts from c. 1400 to c. 1220 BC.[45] Ahhiyawa
is generally accepted as a Hittite translation of Mycenaean Greece (Achaeans in
Homeric Greek), but a precise geographical definition of the term cannot be
drawn from the texts.[50] During this time, the kings of Ahhiyawa were
evidently capable of dealing with their Hittite counterparts both on a
diplomatic and military level.[51] Moreover, Ahhiyawan activity was to
interfere in Anatolian affairs, with the support of anti-Hittite uprisings or
through local vassal rulers, which the Ahhiyawan king used as agents for the
extension of his influence.[52] Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East
during the 14th century BC; Mycenaean Greece in purple In c. 1400 BC, Hittite
records mention the military activities of an Ahhiyawan warlord, Attarsiya, a
possible Hittite way of writing the Greek name Atreus, who attacked Hittite
vassals in western Anatolia.[53] Later, in c. 1315 BC, an anti-Hittite
rebellion headed by Arzawa, a Hittite vassal state, received support from
Ahhiyawa.[54] Meanwhile, Ahhiyawa appears to be in control of a number of
islands in the Aegean, an impression also supported by archaeological
evidence.[55] During the reign of the Hittite king Hattusili III (c.
1267–1237 BC), the king of Ahhiyawa is recognized as a "Great
King" and of equal status with the other contemporary great Bronze Age
rulers: the kings of Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria.[56] At that time, another
anti-Hittite movement, led by Piyama-Radu, broke out and was supported by the
king of Ahhiyawa.[57] Piyama-Radu caused major unrest in the region of Wilusa
and later invaded the island of Lesbos, which then passed into Ahhiyawan
control.[58] The Hittite-Ahhiyawan confrontation in Wilusa, the Hittite name
for Troy, may provide the historical foundation for the Trojan War
tradition.[59] As a result of this instability, the Hittite king initiated
correspondence in order to convince his Ahhiyawan counterpart to restore peace
in the region. The Hittite record mentions a certain Tawagalawa, a possible
Hittite translation for Greek Eteocles, as brother of the king of
Ahhiyawa.[58][60]
Collapse (c. 1250–1100 BC) Initial decline and revival Marching soldiers
observed by a female figure, in the Warrior Vase, c. 1200 BC, a krater from
Mycenae In c. 1250 BC, the first wave of destruction apparently occurred in
various centers of mainland Greece for reasons that cannot be identified by
archaeologists. In Boeotia, Thebes was burned to the ground, around that year
or slightly later. Nearby Orchomenos shared the same fate, while the Boeotian
fortifications of Gla were deserted.[61] In the Peloponnese, a number of
buildings surrounding the citadel of Mycenae were attacked and burned.[62]
These incidents appear to have prompted the massive strengthening and expansion
of the fortifications in various sites. In some cases, arrangements were also
made for the creation of subterranean passages which led to underground
cisterns. Tiryns, Midea and Athens expanded their defences with new
cyclopean-style walls.[63] The extension program in Mycenae almost doubled the
fortified area of the citadel. To this phase of extension belongs the
impressive Lion Gate, the main entrance into the Mycenaean acropolis.[63] It
appears that after this first wave of destruction a short-lived revival of
Mycenaean culture followed.[64] Mycenaean Greece continues to be mentioned in
international affairs, particularly in Hittite records. In c. 1220 BC, the king
of Ahhiyawa is again reported to have been involved in an anti-Hittite uprising
in western Anatolia.[65] Another contemporary Hittite account reports that
Ahhiyawan ships should avoid Assyrian-controlled harbors, as part of a trade
embargo imposed on Assyria.[66] In general, in the second half of 13th century
BC, trade was in decline in the Eastern Mediterranean, most probably due to the
unstable political environment there.[67] Final collapse
Final collapse None of the defence measures appear to have prevented the final
destruction and collapse of the Mycenaean states. A second destruction struck
Mycenae in c. 1190 BC or shortly thereafter. This event marked the end of
Mycenae as a major power. The site was then reoccupied, but on a smaller
scale.[62] The palace of Pylos, in the southwestern Peloponnese, was destroyed
in c. 1180 BC.[68][69] The Linear B archives found there, preserved by the heat
of the fire that destroyed the palace, mention hasty defence preparations due
to an imminent attack without giving any detail about the attacking force.[64]
As a result of this turmoil, specific regions in mainland Greece witnessed a
dramatic population decrease, especially Boeotia, Argolis and Messenia.[64]
Mycenaean refugees migrated to Cyprus and the Levantine coast.[69]
Nevertheless, other regions on the edge of the Mycenaean world prospered, such
as the Ionian islands, the northwestern Peloponnese, parts of Attica and a
number of Aegean islands.[64] The acropolis of Athens, oddly, appears to have
avoided destruction.[64]
Hypotheses for the collapse See also: Late Bronze Age collapse and Dorian
invasion Invasions, destructions and possible population movements during the
collapse of the Bronze Age, c. 1200 BC The reasons for the end of the Mycenaean
culture have been hotly debated among scholars. At present, there is no
satisfactory explanation for the collapse of the Mycenaean palace systems. The
two most common theories are population movement and internal conflict. The
first attributes the destruction of Mycenaean sites to invaders.[70] The
hypothesis of a Dorian invasion, known as such in Ancient Greek tradition, that
led to the end of Mycenaean Greece, is supported by sporadic archaeological
evidence such as new types of burials, in particular cist graves, and the use
of a new dialect of Greek, the Doric one. It appears that the Dorians moved
southward gradually over a number of years and devastated the territory, until
they managed to establish themselves in the Mycenaean centers.[71] A new type
of ceramic also appeared, called "Barbarian Ware" because it was
attributed to invaders from the north.[64] On the other hand, the collapse of
Mycenaean Greece coincides with the activity of the Sea Peoples in the Eastern
Mediterranean. They caused widespread destruction in Anatolia and the Levant
and were finally defeated by Pharaoh Ramesses III in c. 1175 BC. One of the
ethnic groups that comprised these people were the Eqwesh, a name that appears
to be linked with the Ahhiyawa of the Hittite inscriptions.[72] Alternative
scenarios propose that the fall of Mycenaean Greece was a result of internal
disturbances which led to internecine warfare among the Mycenaean states or
civil unrest in a number of states, as a result of the strict hierarchical
social system and the ideology of the wanax.[73] In general, due to the obscure
archaeological picture in 12th–11th century BC Greece, there is a
continuing controversy among scholars over whether the impoverished societies
that succeeded the Mycenaean palatial states were newcomers or populations that
already resided in Mycenaean Greece. Recent archaeological findings tend to
favor the latter scenario.[64] Additional theories, concerning natural factors,
such as climate change, droughts or earthquakes have also been proposed.[73]
Another theory considers the decline of the Mycenaean civilization as a
manifestation of a common pattern for the decline of many ancient
civilizations: the Minoan, the Harrapan and the Western Roman Empire; the
reason for the decline is migration due to overpopulation.[74] The period
following the end of Mycenaean Greece, c. 1100–800 BC, is generally termed
the "Greek Dark Ages".[75]
Political organization Reconstruction of the political landscape in c.
1400–1250 BC mainland southern Greece Palatial states Mycenaean palatial
states, or centrally organized palace-operating polities, are recorded in
ancient Greek literature and mythology (e.g., Iliad, Catalogue of Ships) and
confirmed by discoveries made by modern archaeologists such as Heinrich
Schliemann. Each Mycenaean kingdom was governed from the palace, which
exercised control over most, if not all, industries within its realm. The
palatial territory was divided into several sub-regions, each headed by its
provincial center. Each province was further divided in smaller districts, the
da-mo.[76] A number of palaces and fortifications appear to be part of a wider
kingdom. For instance, Gla, located in the region of Boeotia, belonged to the
state of nearby Orchomenos.[61] Moreover, the palace of Mycenae appeared to
have ruled over a territory two to three times the size of the other palatial
states in Bronze Age Greece. Its territory would have also included adjacent
centers, including Tiryns and Nauplion, which could plausibly be ruled by a
member of Mycenae's ruling dynasty.[77] The unearthed Linear B texts are too
fragmentary for the reconstruction of the political landscape in Mycenaean
Greece and they do not support the existence of a larger Mycenaean
state.[50][78] On the other hand, contemporary Hittite and Egyptian records
suggest the presence of a single state under a "Great King".[79]
Alternatively, based on archaeological data, some sort of confederation among a
number of palatial states appears to be possible.[50] If some kind of united
political entity existed, the dominant center was probably located in Thebes or
in Mycenae, with the latter state being the most probable center of power.[80]
Society and administration Two Mycenaean chariot warriors on a fresco from
Pylos (about 1350 BC; left) and two female charioteers from Tiryns (1200 BC;
right) The Neolithic agrarian village (6000 BC) constituted the foundation of
Bronze Age political culture in Greece.[81] The vast majority of the preserved
Linear B records deal with administrative issues and give the impression that
Mycenaean palatial administration was highly uniform with the use of the same
language, terminology, system of taxation and distribution.[42][76] Considering
this sense of uniformity, the Pylos archive, which is the best preserved one in
the Mycenaean world, is generally taken as a representative one.[42] The state
was ruled by a king, the wanax (???a?), whose role was religious and perhaps
also military and judicial.[82] The wanax oversaw virtually all aspects of
palatial life, from religious feasting and offerings to the distribution of
goods, craftsmen and troops.[83] Under him was the lawagetas ("the leader
of the people"), whose role appears mainly religious. His activities
possibly overlap with the wanax and is usually seen as the
second-in-command.[83] Both wanax and lawagetas were at the head of a military
aristocracy known as the eqeta ("companions" or
"followers").[82][84] The land possessed by the wanax is usually the
témenos (te-me-no). There is also at least one instance of a person,
Enkhelyawon, at Pylos, who appears titleless in the written record but whom
modern scholars regard as probably a king.[85] A number of local officials
positioned by the wanax appear to be in charge of the districts, such as
ko-re-te (koreter, '"governor"), po-ro-ko-re-te (prokoreter,
"deputy") and the da-mo-ko-ro (damokoros, "one who takes care of
a damos"), the latter probably being appointed to take charge of the
commune. A council of elders was chaired, the ke-ro-si-ja (cf. ?e???s?a,
gerousía). The basileus, who in latter Greek society was the name of the
king, refers to communal officials.[82] In general, Mycenaean society appears
to have been divided into two groups of free men: the king's entourage, who
conducted administrative duties at the palace, and the people, da-mo[86] These
last were watched over by royal agents and were obliged to perform duties for
and pay taxes to the palace.[82] Among those who could be found in the palace
were well-to-do high officials, who probably lived in the vast residences found
in proximity to Mycenaean palaces, but also others, tied by their work to the
palace and not necessarily better off than the members of the da-mo, such as
craftsmen, farmers, and perhaps merchants. Occupying a lower rung of the social
ladder were the slaves, do-e-ro, (cf. d?????, doúlos).[87] These are
recorded in the texts as working either for the palace or for specific
deities.[82]
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wwEconomy Mycenaean palace amphora, found in
the Argolid Mycenaean stirrup vase found in the acropolis of Ugarit, Eastern
Mediterranean (c. 1400–1300 BC) Organization The Mycenaean economy, given
its pre-monetary nature, was focused on the redistribution of goods,
commodities and labor by a central administration. The preserved Linear B
records in Pylos and Knossos indicate that the palaces were closely monitoring
a variety of industries and commodities, the organization of land management
and the rations given to the dependent personnel.[88][89] The Mycenaean palaces
maintained extensive control of the nondomestic areas of production through
careful control and acquisition and distribution in the palace industries, and
the tallying of produced goods.[90][91] For instance, the Knossos tablets
record c. 80,000–100,000 sheep grazing in central Crete, and the quantity
of the expected wool from these sheep and their offspring, as well as how this
wool was allocated.[91] The archives of Pylos display a specialized workforce,
where each worker belonged to a precise category and was assigned to a specific
task in the stages of production, notably in textiles.[92] Nevertheless,
palatial control over resources appears to have been highly selective in
spatial terms and in terms of how different industries were managed.[93] Thus,
sectors like the production of perfumed oil and bronze materials were directly
monitored from the palace, but the production of ceramics was only indirectly
monitored.[94] Regional transactions between the palaces are also recorded on a
few occasions.[95]
Large-scale infrastructure The palatial centers organized their workforce and
resources for the construction of large scale projects in the fields of
agriculture and industry.[89] The magnitude of some projects indicates that
this was the result of combined efforts from multiple palatial centers. Most
notable of them are the drainage system of the Kopais basin in Boeotia, the
building of a large dam outside Tiryns, and the drainage of the swamp in the
Nemea valley.[96] Also noticeable is the construction of harbors, such as the
harbor of Pylos, that were capable of accommodating large Bronze Age era
vessels like the one found at Uluburun.[96] The Mycenaean economy also featured
large-scale manufacturing as testified by the extent of workshop complexes that
have been discovered, the largest known to date being the recent ceramic and
hydraulic installations found in Euonymeia, next to Athens, that produced
tableware, textiles, sails, and ropes for export and shipbuilding.[97] The most
famous project of the Mycenaean era was the network of roads in the
Peloponnese.[96] This appears to have facilitated the speedy deployment of
troops—for example, the remnants of a Mycenaean road, along with what
appears to have been a Mycenaean defensive wall on the Isthmus of Corinth. The
Mycenaean era saw the zenith of infrastructure engineering in Greece, and this
appears not to have been limited to the Argive plain.[9
Trade Gold earring, c. 1600 BC, Louvre Museum Reconstruction of a Mycenaean
ship Trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean was essential for the economy
of Mycenaean Greece. The Mycenaean palaces imported raw materials, such as
metals, ivory and glass, and exported processed commodities and objects made
from these materials, in addition to local products: oil, perfume, wine, wool
and pottery.[89] International trade of that time was not only conducted by
palatial emissaries but also by independent merchants.[99] Based on
archaeological findings in the Middle East, in particular physical artifacts,
textual references, inscriptions and wall paintings, it appears that Mycenaean
Greeks achieved strong commercial and cultural interaction with most of the
Bronze Age people living in this region: Canaanites, Kassites, Mitanni,
Assyrians, and Egyptians.[99][100][101] The 14th century Uluburun shipwreck,
off the coast of southern Anatolia, displays the established trade routes that
supplied the Mycenaeans with all the raw materials and items that the economy
of Mycenaean Greece needed, such as copper and tin for the production of bronze
products.[102] A chief export of the Mycenaeans was olive oil, which was a
multi-purpose product.[103] Cyprus appears to be the principal intermediary
station between Mycenaean Greece and the Middle East, based on the considerable
greater quantities of Mycenaean goods found there.[104] On the other hand,
trade with the Hittite lands in central Anatolia appears to have been
limited.[99][105] Trade with Troy is also well attested, while Mycenaean trade
routes expanded further to the Bosphorus and the shores of the Black Sea.[106]
Mycenaean swords have been found as far away as Georgia in the eastern Black
Sea coast.[107] Commercial interaction was also intense with the Italian
peninsula and the western Mediterranean. Mycenaean products, especially
pottery, were exported to southern Italy, Sicily and the Aeolian islands.
Mycenaean products also penetrated further into Sardinia,[108][109] as well as
southern Spain.[110] Sporadic objects of Mycenaean manufacture were found in
various distant locations, like in Central Europe,[111] such as in Bavaria,
Germany, where an amber object inscribed with Linear B symbols has been
unearthed.[112] Mycenaean bronze double axes and other objects dating from the
13th century BC have been found in Ireland and in Wessex and Cornwall in
England.[113][114]
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