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Military history is a humanities
discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict
in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, cultures and
economies thereof, as well as the resulting changes to local and international
relationships. Professional historians normally focus on military affairs that
had a major impact on the societies involved as well as the aftermath of
conflicts, while amateur historians and hobbyists often take a larger interest
in the details of battles, equipment and uniforms in use. The essential
subjects of military history study are the causes of war, the social and
cultural foundations, military doctrine on each side, the logistics,
leadership, technology, strategy, and tactics used, and how these changed over
time. On the other hand, Just War Theory explores the moral dimensions of
warfare, and to better limit the destructive reality caused by war, seeks to
establish a doctrine of military ethics. As an applied field, military history
has been studied at academies and service schools because the military command
seeks to not repeat past mistakes, and improve upon its current performance by
instilling an ability in commanders to perceive historical parallels during a
battle, so as to capitalize on the lessons learned from the past.
When certifying military history instructors the Combat Studies Institute
deemphasizes rote detail memorization and focuses on themes and context in
relation to current and future conflict, using the motto "Past is
Prologue." The discipline of military history is dynamic, changing with
development as much of the subject area as the societies and organisations that
make use of it. The dynamic nature of the discipline of military history is
largely related to the rapidity of change the military forces, and the art and
science of managing them, as well as the frenetic pace of technological
development that had taken place during the period known as the Industrial
Revolution, and more recently in the nuclear and information ages.
An important recent concept is the Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) which
attempts to explain how warfare has been shaped by emerging technologies, such
as gunpowder. It highlights the short outbursts of rapid change followed by
periods of relative stability.
Popular versus academic military history In terms of the history profession in
major countries, military history is an orphan, despite its enormous popularity
with the general public. William H. McNeill points out: This branch of our
discipline flourishes in an intellectual ghetto. The 144 books in question
[published in 1968-78] fall into two distinct classes: works aimed at a popular
readership, written by journalists and men of letters outside academic circles,
and professional work nearly always produced within the military
establishment.... The study of military history in universities remains
seriously underdeveloped. Indeed, lack of interest in and disdain for military
history probably constitute one of the strangest prejudices of the profession.
Historiography of military history:
Historiography is the study of the history and method of the discipline of
history or the study of a specialised topic. In this case, military history
with an eye to gaining an accurate assessment of conflicts using all available
sources. For this reason military history is periodised, creating overlaying
boundaries of study and analysis in which descriptions of battles by leaders
may be unreliable due to the inclination to minimize mention of failure and
exaggerate success. Military historians use Historiographical analysis in an
effort to allow an unbiased, contemporary view of records. One military
historian, Jeremy Black, outlined problems 21st-century military historians
face as an inheritance of their predecessors: Eurocentricity, a technological
bias, a focus on leading military powers and dominant military systems, the
separation of land from sea and recently air conflicts, the focus on
state-to-state conflict, a lack of focus on political "tasking" in
how forces are used. If these challenges were not sufficient for the military
historians, the limits of method are complicated by the lack of records, either
destroyed or never recorded for its value as a military secret that may prevent
some salient facts from being reported at all; scholars still do not know the
exact nature of Greek fire for instance.
Researching Operation:
Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom, for example, have presented
unique challenges to historians due to records that were destroyed to protect
classified military information, among other reasons. Historians utilize their
knowledge of government regulation and military organization, and employing a
targeted and systematic research strategy to piece together war histories.
Despite these limits, wars are some of the most studied and detailed periods of
human history. Military historians have often compared organization, tactical
and strategic ideas, leadership, and national support of the militaries of
different nations. In the early 1980s, historian Jeffrey Kimball studied the
influence of a historian's political position on current events on interpretive
disagreement regarding the causes of 20th century wars. He surveyed the
ideological preferences of 109 active diplomatic historians in the United
States as well as 54 active military historians. He finds that their current
political views are moderately correlated with their historiographical
interpretations. A clear position on the left-right continuum regarding
capitalism was apparent in most cases. All groups agreed with the proposition,
"historically, Americans have tended to view questions of their national
security in terms of such extremes as good vs. evil."
Though the Socialists were split, the other groups agreed that
"miscalculation and/or misunderstanding of the situation" had caused
U.S. interventionism." Kimball reports that: Of historians in the field of
diplomatic history, 7% are Socialist, 19% are Other, 53% are Liberal, 11% are
None and 10% Conservative. Of military historians, 0% are Socialist, 8% are
Other, 35% are Liberal, 18% are None and 40% are Conservative.
Online resources:
People interested in military history from all periods of time, and all
subtopics, are increasingly turning to the Internet for many more resources
than are typically available in nearby libraries. Since 1993, one of the most
popular sites, with over 4000 members (subscriptions are free) has been H-WAR,
sponsored by the H-Net network based at Michigan State University. H-War has
six coeditors, and an academic advisory board that sets policy. It sponsors
daily moderated discussions of current topics, announcements of new
publications and conferences, and reports on developments at conferences. The
H-Net family of lists has sponsored and published over 46,000 scholarly book
reviews, thousands of which deal with books in military history broadly
conceived. Wikipedia itself has a very wide coverage of military history, with
over 180,000 articles. Its editors sponsor Wikipedia:WikiProject Military
history and encourage readers to join.
Military and war museums:
The Canadian War Museum.
See also: Category:Military and war museums.
Military museums specialize in military histories; they are often organized
from a national point of view, where a museum in a particular country will have
displays organized around conflicts in which that country has taken part. They
typically take a broad view of warfare's role in the nation's history. They
typically include displays of weapons and other military equipment, uniforms,
wartime propaganda, and exhibits on civilian life during wartime, and
decorations, among others. A military museum may be dedicated to a particular
or area, such as the Imperial War Museum Duxford for military aircraft,
Deutsches Panzermuseum for tanks, the Lange Max Museum for the Western Front
(World War I), the International Spy Museum for espionage, The National World
War I Museum for World War I, the "D-Day Paratroopers Historical
Center" (Normandy) for WWII airborne, or more generalist, such as the
Canadian War Museum or the Musée de l'Armée. For the Italian
alpine wall one can find the most popular museum of bunkers in the small museum
n8bunker at Olang / Kronplatz in the heard of the dolomites of South Tyrol. The
U.S. Army and the state National Guards operate 98 military history museums
across the United States and three abroad. Curators debate how or whether the
goal of providing diverse representations of war, in terms of positive and
negative aspects of warfare. War is seldom presented as a good thing, but
soldiers are heavily praised. David Lowenthal has observed that in today's
museums, "nothing seems too horrendous to commemorate". Yet as Andrew
Whitmarsh notes, "museums frequently portray a sanitised version of
warfare." The actual bomber that dropped the atomic bomb on Japan became
the focus of an angry national controversy with veterans attacking curators and
historians when the Smithsonian Institution planned to put its fuselage on
public display in 1995. The uproar led to cancellation of the exhibit.
Early historians:
The documentation of military history begins with the confrontation between
Sumer (current Iraq) and Elam (current Iran) c. 2700 BC near the modern Basra.
Other prominent records in military history are the Trojan War in Homer's Iliad
(though its historicity has been challenged), The Histories by Herodotus (484
BC – 425 BC) who is often called the "father of history". Next
was Thucydides whose impartiality, despite being an Athenian, allowed him to
take advantage of his exile to research the war from different perspectives by
carefully examining documents and interviewing eyewitnesses. An approach
centered on the analysis of a leader was taken by Xenophon (430 BC – 355
BC) in Anabasis, recording the expedition of Cyrus the Younger into Anatolia.
The records of the Roman Julius Caesar (100 BC – 44 BC) enable a
comparative approach for campaigns such as Commentarii de Bello Gallico and
Commentarii de Bello Civili.
Technological evolution:
The nature of warfare never changes, only its superficial manifestations.
Joshua and David, Hector and Achilles would recognize the combat that our
soldiers and Marines have waged in the alleys of Somalia and Iraq. The uniforms
evolve, bronze gives way to titanium, arrows may be replaced by laser-guided
bombs, but the heart of the matter is still killing your enemies until any
survivors surrender and do your will. —?Ralph Peters. New weapons
development can dramatically alter the face of war, the cost of warfare, the
preparations, and the training of soldiers and leaders. A rule of thumb is that
if your enemy has a potentially war winning weapon, you have to either match it
or neutralize it. Ancient era Chariots originated around 2000 BC. The chariot
was an effective, fast weapon; while one man controlled the maneuvering of the
chariot, a second bowman could shoot arrows at enemy soldiers. These became
crucial to the maintenance of several governments, including the New Egyptian
Kingdom and the Shang dynasty and the nation states of the early to middle Zhou
dynasty. Some of the military unit types and technologies which were developed
in the ancient world are: Slinger, Hoplite Auxiliaries, Infantry, Archery,
Chariots, Cavalry.
For settled agrarian civilizations, the infantry became the core of military
action. The infantry started as opposing armed groups of soldiers underneath
commanders. The Greeks and early Romans used rigid, heavily armed phalanxes.
The Macedonians and Hellenistic states would adopt phalanx formations with
sarissa pikemen. The Romans would later adopt more flexible maniples from their
neighbors which made them extremely successful in the field of battle. The
kingdoms of the Warring States in East Asia also adopted infantry combat, a
transition from chariot warfare from centuries earlier. Archers were a major
component of many ancient armies, notably those of the Persians, Scythians,
Egyptians, Nubians, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese. Cavalry became an
important tool. In the Sicilian Expedition, led by Athens in an attempt to
subdue Syracuse, the well-trained Syracusan cavalry became crucial to the
success of the Syracusans. Macedonian Alexander the Great effectively deployed
his cavalry forces to secure victories. In battles such as the Battle of Cannae
of the Second Punic War, and the Battle of Carrhae of the Roman-Persian Wars,
the importance of the cavalry would be repeated. There were also horse archers,
who had the ability to shoot on horseback – the Parthians, Scythians,
Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this
tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely
adopted by the Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Eastern Han dynasty and Three
Kingdoms, etc. The early Indo-Iranians developed the use of chariots in
warfare. The scythed chariot was later invented in India and soon adopted by
the Persians. War elephants were sometimes deployed for fighting in ancient
warfare. They were first used in India and later adopted by the Persians. War
elephants were also used in the Battle of the Hydaspes River, and by Hannibal
in the Second Punic War against the Romans. A Greek trireme Naval warfare was
often crucial to military success. Early navies used sailing ships without
cannons; often the goal was to ram the enemy ships and cause them to sink.
There was human oar power, often using slaves, built up to ramming speed.
Galleys were used in the 3rd millennium BC by the Cretans. The Greeks later
advanced these ships. In 1210 BC, the first recorded naval battle was fought
between Suppiluliuma II, king of the Hittites, and Cyprus, which was defeated.
In the Greco-Persian Wars, the navy became of increasing importance. Triremes
were involved in more complicated sea-land operations. Themistocles helped to
build up a stronger Greek navy, composed of 310 ships, and defeated the
Persians at the Battle of Salamis, ending the Persian invasion of Greece. In
the First Punic War, the war between Carthage and Rome started with an
advantage to Carthage because of their naval experience. A Roman fleet was
built in 261 BC, with the addition of the corvus that allowed Roman soldiers to
board enemy ships. The bridge would prove effective at the Battle of Mylae,
resulting in a Roman victory. The Vikings, in the 8th century AD, invented a
ship propelled by oars with a dragon decorating the prow, hence called the
Drakkar. The 12th century AD Song Dynasty invented ships with watertight
bulkhead compartments while the 2nd century BC Han dynasty invented rudders and
sculled oars for their warships.
Fortifications are important in warfare. Early hill-forts were used to protect
inhabitants in the Iron Age. They were primitive forts surrounded by ditches
filled with water. Forts were then built out of mud bricks, stones, wood, and
other available materials. Romans used rectangular fortresses built out of wood
and stone. As long as there have been fortifications, there have been
contraptions to break in, dating back to the times of Romans and earlier. Siege
warfare is often necessary to capture forts. Some of the military unit types
and technologies which were used in the medieval period are: Artillery
Cataphract Condottieri Fyrd Rashidun Mobile guard Mamluk Janissary Knight (see
also: Chivalry) Crossbow Pikeman Samurai Sipahi Trebuchet Bows and arrows were
often used by combatants. Egyptians shot arrows from chariots effectively. The
crossbow was developed around 500 BC in China, and was used a lot in the Middle
Ages. The English/Welsh longbow from the 12th century also became important in
the Middle Ages. It helped to give the English a large early advantage in the
Hundred Years' War, even though the English were eventually defeated. The
Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Agincourt are excellent examples of
how to destroy an enemy using a longbow. It dominated battlefields for over a
century. Gunpowder Illustration of an "eruptor," a proto-cannon,
capable of firing cast-iron bombs filled with gunpowder, from the 14th century
Ming Dynasty book Huolongjing. There is evidence for gunpowder evolving slowly
from formulations by Chinese alchemists as early as the 4th century, at first
as experiments for life force and metal transmutation, and later experiments as
pyrotechnics and incendiaries. By the 10th century, the developments in
gunpowder led to many new weapons that were improved over time. The Chinese
used incendiary devices based on this in siege warfare against the Mongols
starting in the mid 13th century. "Pots with wicks of flax or cotton were
used, containing a combination of sulfur, saltpeter (potassium nitrate),
aconitine, oil, resin, ground charcoal and wax." Joseph Needham argued the
Chinese were able to destroy buildings and walls using such devices. Such
experimentation was not present in Western Europe, where the combination of
saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal were used exclusively for explosives and as a
propellant in firearms. What the Chinese often referred to as the "fire
drug" arrived in Europe, fully fleshed out, as gunpowder. Cannons were
first used in Europe in the early 14th century, and played a vital role in the
Hundred Years' War. The first cannons were simply welded metal bars in the form
of a cylinder, and the first cannonballs were made of stone. By 1346, at the
Battle of Crécy, the cannon had been used; at the Battle of Agincourt
they would be used again. The first infantry firearms, from fire lances to hand
cannons, were held in one hand, while the explosive charge was ignited by a lit
match or hot coal held in the other hand. In the mid-15th century came the
matchlock, allowing the gun to be aimed and fired while held steady with both
hands, as used in the arquebus. Starting about 1500, clever but complicated
firing mechanisms were invented to generate sparks to ignite the powder instead
of a lit match, starting with the wheel lock, snaplock, snaphance, and finally
the flintlock mechanism, which was simple and reliable, becoming standard with
the musket by the early 17th century. At the beginning of the 16th century, the
first European fire ships were used. Ships were filled with flammable
materials, set on fire, and sent to enemy lines. This tactic was successfully
used by Francis Drake to scatter the Spanish Armada at the Battle of
Gravelines, and would later be used by the Chinese, Russians, Greeks, and
several other countries in naval battles. Naval mines were invented in the 17th
century, though they were not used in great numbers until the American Civil
War. They were used heavily in the First and Second World Wars. Air-deployed
naval mines were used to mine the North Vietnamese port of Haiphong during the
Vietnam War. The Iraqi Navy of Saddam Hussein used naval mines extensively
during the Tanker War, as part of the Iran–Iraq War. The first navigable
submarine was built in 1624 by Cornelius Drebbel, it could cruise at a depth of
15 feet (5 m). However, the first military submarine was constructed in 1885 by
Isaac Peral. The Turtle was developed by David Bushnell during the American
Revolution. Robert Fulton then improved the submarine design by creating the
Nautilus. The Howitzer, a type of field artillery, was developed in the 17th
century to fire high trajectory explosive shells at targets that could not be
reached by flat trajectory projectiles. Organizational changes resulting in
better training and intercommunication, made the concept combined arms
possible, allowing the use of infantry, cavalry, and artillery in a coordinated
way.[citation needed] Bayonets also became of wide usage to infantry soldiers.
Bayonet is named after Bayonne, France where it was first manufactured in the
16th century. It is used often in infantry charges to fight in hand-to-hand
combat. General Jean Martinet introduced the bayonet to the French army. They
were used heavily in the American Civil War, and continued to be used in modern
wars like the Invasion of Iraq. Balloons were first used in warfare at the end
of the 18th century. It was first introduced in Paris of 1783; the first
balloon traveled over 5 miles (8 km). Previously military scouts could only see
from high points on the ground, or from the mast of a ship. Now they could be
high in the sky, signalling to troops on the ground. This made it much more
difficult for troop movements to go unobserved. At the end of the 18th century,
iron-cased artillery rockets were successfully used militarily in India against
the British by Tipu Sultan of the Kingdom of Mysore during the Anglo-Mysore
Wars. Rockets were generally inaccurate at that time, though William Hale, in
1844, was able to develop a better rocket. The new rocket no longer needed the
rocket stick, and had a higher accuracy. In the 1860s there were a series of
advancements in rifles. The first repeating rifle was designed in 1860 by a
company bought out by Winchester, which made new and improved versions.
Springfield rifles arrived in the mid-19th century also. Machine guns arrived
in the late 19th century. Automatic rifles and light machine guns first arrived
at the beginning of the 20th century. In the later part of the 19th century,
the self-propelled torpedo was developed. The HNoMS Rap was the world's first
torpedo boat. Early guns and artillery The fire lance, the predecessor of the
gun, was invented in China between the tenth and eleventh century. The barrel
was originally designed out of bamboo shoots, later with metal. Joseph Needham
notes "all the long preparations and tentative experiments were made in
China, and everything came to Islam and the West fully fledged, whether it was
the fire lance or the explosive bomb, the rocket or the metal-barrel handgun
and bombard." By the 1320s Europe had guns, but scholars state that the
exact time and method of migration from China remains a mystery. Evidence of
firearms is found in Iran and Central Asia in the late fourteenth century. It
was not until roughly 1442 that guns were referenced in India. Reliable
references to guns in Russia begins around 1382. An illustration of a
"pot-shaped gun" found in the Holkham Hall Milemete manuscript dated
to 1326 shows earliest advent of firearms in European history. The illustration
shows an arrow, set in the pot-shaped gun pointed directly at a structure.
Archaeological evidence of such "gun arrows" were discovered in Eltz
Castle, "dated by relation to a historical event (a feud with the
Archbishop of Trier in 1331-36 leading to a siege), seem to confirm again that
this was at least one of the types of guns like the Milemete used in these very
early examples." According to Peter Fraser Purton, the best evidence of
the earliest gun in Europe is the Loshult gun, dated to the fourteenth century.
Discovered in 1861, the Loshult was made of bronze measured 11.8 inches in
length. A replica of the Loshult was created, using similar gunpowder compounds
with present-day materials, to determine the effectiveness of the weapon. The
Gunpowder Research Group, who designed the recreation, found that at high
elevations, the Loshult could fire as far as 1300 meters. Though inaccurate,
missing targets further than 200 meters, the Loshult could fire a range of
projectiles such as arrows and shot. It was determined that the Loshult could
be effectively fired at ranks of soldiers and structures. Written works from
the Cabinet des Titres of the Imperial Library of Paris has found evidence of
canons in France in 1338. The works illustrate canons being used on-board ships
at the Rouen during that time. "...an iron Fire-arm, which was provided
with forty-eight bolts, made of iron and freather; also one pound of saltpetre
and half a pound of sulphur to make the powder propel arrows." Researchers
have been unable to determine the sizes of these canons and others, outside the
artifacts recovered. Sir Henry Brackenbury was able to surmise the approximate
size of these cannons by comparing receipts for both the firearms and the
corresponding amounts of gunpowder purchased. The receipts show a transaction
for "25 Livres for 5 canons." Brackenbury was able to deduce, when
comparing the costs of the cannons and the gunpowder apportioned, that they
each iron cannon weighed approximately 25 lbs, while the brass cannons weighed
roughly 22 lbs. Philip the Bold (1363-1404) is credited with creating the most
effective artillery power in Europe in the late fourteenth century, effectively
creating the Burgundian estate. Philip's development of a large artillery army
made the small country a reputable force against larger empires such as England
and France. Philip had achieved this by establishing a large scale artillery
manufacturing economy in Burgundy. Philip used his new cache of artillery to
help the French capture an English-held fortress of Odruik. The artillery used
to take Odruik used cannonballs measuring to about 450 pounds. Large artillery
was a major contributing factor to the fall of Constantinople at the hands of
Mehmed the Conqueror (1432-1481). Having resigned his position as ruler due to
youth and inexperience in 1446, Mehmed moved to the Ottoman capital of Manisa.
After his uncle, Murad II died in 1451, Mehmed once again became Sultan. He
turned his attention to claiming the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. Mehmed,
like Philip, started mass-producing cannons by enticing craftsmen to his cause
with money and freedom. For 55 days, Constantinople was bombarded with
artillery fire, throwing cannonballs as large as 800 lbs at its walls. On May
29, 1453, Constantinople fell into Ottoman control. Early firearm tactics As
guns and artillery became more advanced and prevalent, so to did the tactics by
which they were implemented. According to Historian Michael Roberts "...a
military revolution began with the broad adoption of firearms and artillery by
late sixteenth-century European armies." Infantry with firearms replaced
cavalry. Empires adapted their strongholds to withstand artillery fire.
Eventually drilling strategies and battlefield tactics were adapted for the
evolution in firearms use. In Japan, at the same time during the
sixteenth-century, this military evolution was also taking hold. These changes
included a universal adoption of firearms, tactical developments for effective
use, logistical restructuring within the military itself, and "the
emergence of centralized and political and institutional relationships
indicative of the early modern order." Tactically, beginning with Oda
Nobunaga, the technique known as "volleying" or countermarch drills
were implemented. Volley fire is an organized implementation of firearms, where
infantry are structured in ranks. The ranks will alternate between loading and
firing positions, allowing more consistent rates of fire and preventing enemies
from taking over a position while members reload. Historical evidence shows
that Oda Nobunaga implemented his volley technique successfully in 1575, twenty
years before evidence of such a technique is shown in Europe. The first
indications of the countermarch technique in Europe was by Lord William Louis
of Nassau (1538-1574) in the mid 1590s. Korea also seemed to be adapting the
volley technique, earlier than even the Japanese. "Koreans seem to have
employed some kind of volley principle with guns by 1447, when the Korean King
Sejong the Great instructed his gunners to shoot their 'fire barrels' in squads
of five, taking turns firing and loading." This was on display during what
Kenneth Swope called the First Great East Asian War, when Japan was trying to
take control and subjugate Korea. Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1537–1598) made a
failed invasion of Korea, which lasted six years, eventually pushed back by the
Koreans with the aid of Ming China. Japan, using overwhelming firepower, had
many early victories on the Korean peninsula's. Though the Korean's had similar
manpower, "the curtain of arrows thrown up by defenders was wiped out by
(Japanese) gunfire." After the Japanese were finally pushed back in 1598,
sweeping military reforms took place in Korea, largely based on updating and
implementing the volley technique with firearms. It was Qi Jiguang, a Ming
Chinese General that provided the original treatise, disseminated to Koreans,
that aided in this venture. In these manuals, Qi "...gave detailed
instructions in the use of small group tactics, psychological warfare, and
other 'modern' techniques." Qi emphasized repetitive drilling, dividing
men into smaller groups, separating the strong from weak. Qi's ethos was one of
synthesizing smaller groups, trained in various tactical formations, into
larger companies, battalions and armies. By doing this they could "operate
as eyes, hands, and feet..." aiding to overall unit cohesion.
Modern technologies:
At the start of the World Wars, various nations had developed weapons that were
a surprise to their adversaries, leading to a need to learn from this, and
alter how to combat them. Flame throwers were first used in the First World
War. The French were the first to introduce the armored car in 1902. Then in
1918, the British produced the first armored troop carrier. Many early tanks
were proof of concept but impractical until further development. In World War
I, the British and French held a crucial advantage due to their superiority in
tanks; the Germans had only a few dozen A7V tanks, as well as 170 captured
tanks. The British and French both had several hundred each. The French tanks
included the 13 ton Schneider-Creusot, with a 75 mm gun, and the British had
the Mark IV and Mark V tanks. On December 17, 1903, the Wright Brothers
performed the first controlled, powered, heavier-than-air flight; it went 39
meters (120 ft). In 1907, the first helicopter flew, but it wasn't practical
for usage. Aviation became important in World War I, in which several aces
gained fame. In 1911 an aircraft took off from a warship for the first time.
Landings on a cruiser were another matter. This led to the development of an
aircraft carrier with a decent unobstructed flight deck. Chemical warfare
exploded into the public consciousness in World War I but may have been used in
earlier wars without as much human attention. The Germans used gas-filled
shells at the Battle of Bolimov on January 3, 1915. These were not lethal,
however. In April 1915, the Germans developed a chlorine gas that was highly
lethal, and used it to moderate effect at the Second Battle of Ypres. Gas masks
were invented in matter of weeks, and poison gas proved ineffective at winning
battles. It was made illegal by all nations in the 1920s. World War II gave
rise to even more technology. The worth of the aircraft carrier was proved in
the battles between the United States and Japan like the Battle of Midway.
Radar was independently invented by the Allies and Axis powers. It used radio
waves to detect objects. Molotov cocktails were invented by General Franco in
the Spanish Civil War, directing the Nationalists to use them against Soviet
tanks in the assault on Toledo. The atomic bomb was developed by the Manhattan
Project and dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, quickly ending World War
II. During the Cold War, the main powers engaged in a Nuclear arms race. In the
space race, both nations attempted to launch human beings into space to the
moon. Other technological advances centered on intelligence (like the spy
satellite) and missiles (ballistic missiles, cruise missiles). Nuclear
submarine, invented in 1955. This meant submarines no longer had to surface as
often, and could run more quietly. They evolved into becoming underwater
missile platforms.
Periods of military history:
The influence of technology on military history, and evident Eurocentrism are
nowhere more pronounced than in the attempt by the military historians to
divide their subject area into more manageable periods of analysis. While
general discipline of history subdivides history into Ancient history
(Classical antiquity), Middle Ages (Europe, 4th century – 15th century),
Early Modern period (Europe, 14th century – 18th century), Modern era
(Europe, 18th century – 20th century), and the Post-Modern (USA,
1949–present), the periodisation below stresses technological change in
its emphasis, particularly the crucial dramatic change during the Gunpowder
warfare period. Periodisation is not uniformly applied through time and space,
affirming the claims of Eurocentrism from regional historians. For example,
what might be described as prehistoric warfare is still practised in a few
parts of the world. Other eras that are distinct in European history, such as
the era of medieval warfare, may have little relevance in East Asia.
Ancient warfare:
Further information: Ancient warfare:
Much of what we know of ancient history is the history of militaries: their
conquests, their movements, and their technological innovations. There are many
reasons for this. Kingdoms and empires, the central units of control in the
ancient world, could only be maintained through military force. Due to limited
agricultural ability, there were relatively few areas that could support large
communities, so fighting was common. Weapons and armor, designed to be sturdy,
tended to last longer than other artifacts, and thus a great deal of surviving
artifacts recovered tend to fall in this category as they are more likely to
survive. Weapons and armor were also mass-produced to a scale that makes them
quite plentiful throughout history, and thus more likely to be found in
archaeological digs. Such items were also considered signs of prosperity or
virtue, and thus were likely to be placed in tombs and monuments to prominent
warriors. And writing, when it existed, was often used for kings to boast of
military conquests or victories. Writing, when used by the common man, also
tended to record such events, as major battles and conquests constituted major
events that many would have considered worthy of recording either in an epic
such as the Homeric writings pertaining to the Trojan War, or even personal
writings. Indeed, the earliest stories center on warfare, as war was both a
common and dramatic aspect of life; the witnessing of a major battle involving
many thousands of soldiers would be quite a spectacle, even today, and thus
considered worthy both of being recorded in song and art, but also in realistic
histories, as well as being a central element in a fictional work. Lastly, as
nation states evolved and empires grew, the increased need for order and
efficiency lead to an increase in the number of records and writings. Officials
and armies would have good reason for keeping detailed records and accounts
involving any and all things concerning a matter such as warfare that, in the
words of Sun Tzu, was "a matter of vital importance to the state".
For all these reasons, military history comprises a large part of ancient
history. Notable militaries in the ancient world included the Egyptians,
Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Ancient Greeks (notably the Spartans and
Macedonians), Kushites, Indians (notably the Magadhas, Gangaridais, Gandharas
and Cholas), Early Imperial Chinese (notably the Qin and Han Dynasties),
Xiongnu Confederation, Ancient Romans, and Carthaginians. The fertile crescent
of Mesopotamia was the center of several prehistoric conquests. Mesopotamia was
conquered by the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Persians.
Iranians were the first nation to introduce cavalry into their army. Egypt
began growing as an ancient power, but eventually fell to the Libyans, Nubians,
Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and Arabs. The earliest
recorded battle in India was the Battle of the Ten Kings. The Indian epics
Mahabharata and Ramayana are centered on conflicts and refer to military
formations, theories of warfare and esoteric weaponry. Chanakya's Arthashastra
contains a detailed study on ancient warfare, including topics on espionage and
war elephants. Alexander the Great invaded Northwestern India and defeated King
Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River. The same region was soon re
conquered by Chandragupta Maurya after defeating the Macedonians and Seleucids.
He also went on to conquer the Nanda Empire and unify Northern India. Most of
Southern Asia was unified under his grandson Ashoka the Great after the Kalinga
War, though the empire collapsed not long after his reign. In China, the Shang
dynasty and Zhou dynasty had risen and collapsed. This led to a Warring States
period, in which several states continued to fight with each other over
territory. Philosopher-strategists such as Confucius and Sun Tzu wrote various
manuscripts on ancient warfare (as well as international diplomacy). The
Warring States era philosopher Mozi (Micius) and his Mohist followers invented
various siege weapons and siegecraft, including the Cloud Ladder (a
four-wheeled, extendable ramp) to scale fortified walls during a siege of an
enemy city. The warring states were first unified by Qin Shi Huang after a
series of military conquests, creating the first empire in China. His empire
was succeeded by the Han dynasty, which expanded into Central Asia, Northern
China/Manchuria, Southern China, and present day Korea and Vietnam. The Han
came into conflict with settled people such as the Wiman Joseon, and
proto-Vietnamese Nanyue. They also came into conflict with the Xiongnu (Huns),
Yuezhi, and other steppe civilizations. The Han defeated and drove the Xiongnus
west, securing the city-states along the silk route that continued into the
Parthian Empire. After the decline of central imperial authority, the Han
Dynasty collapsed into an era of civil war and continuous warfare during the
Three Kingdoms period in the 3rd century AD. The Achaemenid Persian Empire was
founded by Cyrus the Great after conquering the Median Empire, Neo-Babylonian
Empire, Lydia and Asia Minor. His successor Cambyses went on to conquer the
Egyptian Empire, much of Central Asia, and parts of Greece, India and Libya.
The empire later fell to Alexander the Great after defeating Darius III. After
being ruled by the Seleucid dynasty, the Persian Empire was subsequently ruled
by the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties, which were the Roman Empire's greatest
rivals during the Roman-Persian Wars. In Greece, several city-states rose to
power, including Athens and Sparta. The Greeks successfully stopped two Persian
invasions, the first at the Battle of Marathon, where the Persians were led by
Darius the Great, and the second at the Battle of Salamis, a naval battle where
the Greek ships were deployed by orders of Themistocles and the Persians were
under Xerxes I, and the land engagement of the Battle of Plataea. The
Peloponnesian War then erupted between the two Greek powers Athens and Sparta.
Athens built a long wall to protect its inhabitants, but the wall helped to
facilitate the spread of a plague that killed about 30,000 Athenians, including
Pericles. After a disastrous campaign against Syracuse, the Athenian navy was
decisively defeated by Lysander at the Battle of Aegospotami. The Macedonians,
underneath Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, invaded Persia and won
several major victories, establishing Macedonia as a major power. However,
following Alexander's death at an early age, the empire quickly fell apart. The
3rd-century Great Ludovisi sarcophagus depicts a battle between Romans and
Goths. Meanwhile, Rome was gaining power, following a rebellion against the
Etruscans. During the three Punic Wars, the Romans defeated the neighboring
power of Carthage. The First Punic War centered on naval warfare. The Second
Punic War started with Hannibal's invasion of Italy by crossing the Alps. He
famously won the encirclement at the Battle of Cannae. However, after Scipio
invaded Carthage, Hannibal was forced to follow and was defeated at the Battle
of Zama, ending the role of Carthage as a power. After defeating Carthage the
Romans went on to become the Mediterranean's dominant power, successfully
campaigning in Greece, (Aemilius Paulus decisive victory over Macedonia at the
Battle of Pydna), in the Middle East (Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Gnaeus Pompeius
Magnus), in Gaul (Gaius Julius Caesar) and defeating several Germanic tribes
(Gaius Marius, Germanicus). While Roman armies suffered several major losses,
their large population and ability (and will) to replace battlefield
casualties, their training, organization, tactical and technical superiority
enabled Rome to stay a predominant military force for several centuries,
utilizing well trained and maneuverable armies to routinely overcome the much
larger "tribal" armies of their foes (see Battles of Aquae Sextiae,
Vercellae, Tigranocerta, Alesia). In 54 BC the Roman triumvir Marcus Licinius
Crassus took the offensive against the Parthian Empire in the east. In a
decisive battle at Carrhae Romans were defeated and the golden Aquilae
(legionary battle standards) were taken as trophies to Ctesiphon. The battle
was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Republic in its entire
history. While successfully dealing with foreign opponents, Rome experienced
numerous civil wars, notably the power struggles of Roman generals such as
Marius and Sulla during the end of the Republic. Caesar was also notable for
his role in the civil war against the other member of the Triumvirate (Pompey)
and against the Roman Senate. The successors of Caesar – Octavian and Mark
Anthony, also fought a civil war with Caesar's assassins (Senators Brutus,
Cassius, etc.). Octavian and Mark Anthony eventually fought another civil war
between themselves to determine the sole ruler of Rome. Octavian emerged
victorious and Rome was turned into an empire with a huge standing army of
professional soldiers. By the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Romans had expanded
to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to Mesopotamia in the east and controlled
Northern Africa and Central Europe up to the Black Sea. However, Aurelius
marked the end of the Five Good Emperors, and Rome quickly fell into decline.
The Huns, Goths, and other barbaric groups invaded Rome, which continued to
suffer from inflation and other internal strifes. Despite the attempts of
Diocletian, Constantine I, and Theodosius I, western Rome collapsed and was
eventually conquered in 476. The Byzantine empire continued to prosper,
however.
Medieval warfare:
Further information: Medieval warfare:
Battle of Crécy (1346) between the English and French in the Hundred
Years' War. When stirrups came into use some time during the Dark Ages
militaries were forever changed. This invention coupled with technological,
cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the
character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of
cavalry and artillery. Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of
the world. In China around the 5th century armies moved from massed infantry to
cavalry based forces, copying the steppe nomads. The Middle East and North
Africa used similar, if often more advanced, technologies than Europe. In Japan
the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the
19th century. In Africa along the Sahel and Sudan states like the Kingdom of
Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons well after they
had been supplanted in Europe. In the Medieval period, feudalism was firmly
implanted, and there existed many landlords in Europe. Landlords often owned
castles to protect their territory. The Islamic Arab Empire began rapidly
expanding throughout the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, initially
led by Rashidun Caliphate, and later under the Umayyads. While their attempts
to invade Europe by way of the Balkans were defeated by Byzantium and Bulgaria,
the Arabs expanded to the Iberian Peninsula in the west and the Indus Valley in
the east. The Abassids then took over the Arab Empire, though the Umayyads
remained in control of Islamic Spain. At the Battle of Tours, the Franks under
Charles Martel stopped short a Muslim invasion. The Abassids defeated the Tang
Chinese army at the Battle of Talas, but were later defeated by the Seljuk
Turks and the Mongols centuries later, until the Arab Empire eventually came to
an end after the Battle of Baghdad in 1258. In China, the Sui dynasty had risen
and conquered the Chen Dynasty of the south. They invaded Vietnam (northern
Vietnam had been in Chinese control since the Han dynasty), fighting the troops
of Champa, who had cavalry mounted on elephants. After decades of economic
turmoil and a failed invasion of Korea, the Sui collapsed and was followed by
the Tang dynasty, who fought with various Turkic groups, the Tibetans of Lhasa,
the Tanguts, the Khitans, and collapsed due to political fragmentation of
powerful regional military governors (jiedushi). The innovative Song dynasty
followed next, inventing new weapons of war that employed the use of Greek Fire
and gunpowder (see section below) against enemies such as the Jurchens. The
victory of the Polish-Lithuanian forces over the Muscovites at the Battle of
Orsha in 1514 The Mongols under Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, Möngke
Khan, and Kublai Khan conquered most of Eurasia. They took over China, Persia,
Turkestan, and Russia. After Kublai Khan took power and created the Yuan
dynasty, the divisions of the empire ceased to cooperate with each other, and
the Mongol Empire was only nominally united. In New Zealand, prior to European
discovery, oral histories, legends and whakapapa include many stories of
battles and wars. Maori warriors were held in high esteem. One group of
Polynesians migrated to the Chatham Islands, where they developed the largely
pacifist Moriori culture. Their pacifism left the Moriori unable to defend
themselves when the islands were invaded by mainland Maori in the 1830s. They
proceeded to massacre the Moriori and enslave the survivors. Warrior culture
also developed in the isolated Hawaiian Islands. During the 1780s and 1790s the
chiefs and alii were constantly fighting for power. After a series of battles
the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who
would become known as Kamehameha I. Gunpowder warfare Further information:
Gunpowder warfare Eighty Years' War, or Dutch Revolt against Spain, painting by
Sebastiaen Vrancx After gunpowder weapons were first developed in Song dynasty
China (see also Technology of Song Dynasty), the technology later spread west
to the Ottoman Empire, from where it spread to the Safavid Empire of Persia and
the Mughal Empire of India. The arquebus was later adopted by European armies
during the Italian Wars of the early 16th century. This all brought an end to
the dominance of armored cavalry on the battlefield. The simultaneous decline
of the feudal system – and the absorption of the medieval city-states into
larger states – allowed the creation of professional standing armies to
replace the feudal levies and mercenaries that had been the standard military
component of the Middle Ages. In Africa, Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi, was the
first African commander to use gunpowder on the continent in the
Ethiopian–Adal War, that lasted for fourteen years (1529–1543). The
period spanning between the 1648 Peace of Westphalia and the 1789 French
Revolution is also known as Kabinettskriege (Princes' warfare) as wars were
mainly carried out by imperial or monarchics states, decided by cabinets and
limited in scope and in their aims. They also involved quickly shifting
alliances, and mainly used mercenaries. Over the course of the 18th-19th
centuries all military arms and services underwent significant developments
that included a more mobile field artillery, the transition from use of
battalion infantry drill in close order to open order formations and the
transfer of emphasis from the use of bayonets to the rifle that replaced the
musket, and virtual replacement of all types of cavalry with the universal
dragoons, or mounted infantry.
Military Revolution:
Main article: Military Revolution:
The Military Revolution is a conceptual schema for explaining the
transformation of European military strategy, tactics and technology in the
early modern period. The argument is the dramatic advances in technology,
government finance, and public administration transformed and modernized
European armies, tactics, and logistics. Since warfare was so central to the
European state, the transformation at a major impact on modernizing government
bureaucracies, taxation, and the national economy.
The concept was introduced by Michael Roberts in the 1950s as he focused on
Sweden 1560–1660. Roberts emphasized the introduction of muskets that
could not be aimed at small targets, but could be very effective when fired in
volleys by three ranks of infantry soldiers, with one firing while the other
two ranks reloaded. All three ranks march forward to demolish the enemy. The
infantry now had the firepower that had been reserved to the artillery, and had
mobility that could rapidly advance in the battlefield, which the artillery
lacked. The infantry thereby surpassed the artillery in tactical maneuvering on
the battlefield. Roberts linked these advances with larger historical
consequences, arguing that innovations in tactics, drill and doctrine by the
Dutch and Swedes 1560–1660 led to a need for more and better trained
troops and thus for permanent forces (standing armies). Armies grew much larger
and more expensive. These changes in turn had major political consequences in
the level of administrative support and the supply of money, men and
provisions, producing new financial demands and the creation of new
governmental institutions. "Thus, argued Roberts, the modern art of war
made possible—and necessary—the creation of the modern state".
In the 1990s the concept was modified and extended by Geoffrey Parker, who
argued that developments in fortification and siege warfare caused the
revolution. The concept of a military revolution based upon technology has
given way to models based more on a slow evolution in which technology plays a
minor role to organization, command and control, logistics and in general
non-material improvements. The revolutionary nature of these changes was only
visible after a long evolution that handed Europe a predominant place in
warfare, a place that the industrial revolution would confirm. The concept of a
military revolution in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has received a
mixed reception among historians. Noted military historians Michael Duffy and
Jeremy Black have strongly criticised it as misleading, exaggerated and
simplistic.
Industrial warfare:
Further information: Industrial warfare Franco-Prussian War:
As weapons—particularly small arms—became easier to use, countries
began to abandon a complete reliance on professional soldiers in favor of
conscription. Technological advances became increasingly important; while the
armies of the previous period had usually had similar weapons, the industrial
age saw encounters such as the Battle of Sadowa, in which possession of a more
advanced technology played a decisive role in the outcome. Conscription was
employed in industrial warfare to increase the number of military personnel
that were available for combat. Conscription was notably used by Napoleon
Bonaparte and the major parties during the two World Wars. Total war was used
in industrial warfare, the objective being to prevent the opposing nation to
engage in war. Napoleon was the innovator. William Tecumseh Sherman's
"March to the Sea" and Philip Sheridan's burning of the Shenandoah
Valley during the American Civil War were examples. On the largest scale the
strategic bombing of enemy cities and industrial factories during World War II
was total warfare.
Modern warfare:
Further information: Modern warfare:
Since the 1940s, preparation for a major war has been based on technological
arms races involving all sorts of new weapons systems, such as nuclear and
biological, as well as computerized control systems, and the opening of new
venues, such as seen in the Space race involving the United States, the Soviet
Union, and more recently, China. Modern war also saw the improvement of armored
tank technology. While tanks were present in the First World War, and the
Second World War, armored warfare technology came to a head with the start of
the Cold War. Many of the technologies commonly seen on main battle tanks
today, such as composite armor, high caliber cannons, and advanced targeting
systems, would be developed during this time. A distinctive feature since 1945
is the absence of wars between major powers—indeed the near absence of any
traditional wars between established countries. The major exceptions were the
Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the Iran–Iraq War 1980-1988, and the Gulf War
of 1990-91. Instead actual fighting has largely been a matter of civil wars and
insurgencies.
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Further reading:
Archer, I. John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig, and Timothy H. E. Travers. World
History of Warfare (2nd ed. 2008) 638 pp Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western
World, 1775–1882 (2001) 240 pp. Black, Jeremy. Warfare in the Western
World, 1882–1975 (2002), 256 pp. Chambers, John Whiteclay, ed. The Oxford
Companion to American Military History (2000) online at OUP Cowley, Robert, and
Geoffrey Parker, eds. The Reader's Companion to Military History (2001)
excellent coverage by scholars. Complete text online free of 1996 edition Dear,
I. C. B., and M. R. D. Foot, eds. Oxford Companion to World War II (2005; 2nd
ed. 2010) online at OUP Doughty, Robert, Ira Gruber, Roy Flint, and Mark
Grimsley. Warfare In The Western World (2 vol 1996), comprehensive textbook
Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy. The Encyclopedia of Military History:
From 3500 B.C. to the Present (1977), 1465 pp; comprehensive discussion focused
on wars and battles Holmes, Richard, ed. The Oxford Companion to Military
History (2001) 1071 pp; online at OUP Jones, Archer, The Art of War in the
Western World (2001) Keegan, John (1999). The First World War (9th ed.). New
York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-40052-4. Kohn, George C. Dictionary of Wars (3rd
ed. 2006) 704 pp; very useful summary across world history Karsten, Peter. ed.,
Encyclopedia of War and American Society (3 vols., 2005). Keegan, John. The
Face of Battle (1976) excerpt Keegan, John. The Price of Admiralty: The
Evolution of Naval Warfare (1989) Lamphear, John, ed. African Military History
(Routledge, 2007). Lynn, John A. Battle: A Cultural History of Combat and
Culture (2003). Nolan, Cathal J. The Allure of Battle: A History of How Wars
Have Been Won and Lost (2017) Nolan, Cathal J. The Age of Wars of Religion,
1000-1650: An Encyclopedia of Global Warfare and Civilization (2 vol 2006)
Townshend, Charles, ed. The Oxford History of Modern War (2nd ed. 2005)
Historiography Barnett, Correlli, Shelford Bidwell, Brian Bond, and John
Terraine. Old Battles and New Defences: Can We Learn from Military History?
(1986). online edition Black, Jeremy. "Determinisms and Other
Issues", Journal of Military History, 68 (Oct. 2004), 1217–32. in
Project MUSE Black, Jeremy. Rethinking Military History (2004) online edition
Bucholz, Arden. "Hans Delbruck and Modern Military History." The
Historian vol 55#3 (1993) pp. 517+. Chambers II, John Whiteclay. "The New
Military History: Myth and Reality", Journal of Military History, 55 (July
1991), 395–406 Charters, David A., Marc Milner, and J. Brent Wilson. eds.
Military History and the Military Profession, (1992) Citino, Robert M.
"Military Histories Old and New: A Reintroduction", The American
Historical Review Vol. 112, no. 4 (October 2007), pp. 1070–90 online
version Grimsley, Mark. "Why Military History Sucks", Nov. 1996, War
Historian.org, online at [1] Higham, John, ed. A Guide to the Sources of
British Military History (2015) 654 pages excerpt Hughes, Matthew, and W.
Philpott, eds. Palgrave Advances in Modern Military History (2006) excerpt
Karsten, Peter. "The 'New' American Military History: A Map of the
Territory, Explored and Unexplored", American Quarterly, 36 #3, (1984),
389–418 in JSTOR Kimball, Jeffrey. "The Influence of Ideology on
Interpretive Disagreement: A Report on a Survey of Diplomatic, Military and
Peace Historians on the Causes of 20th Century U. S. Wars," History
Teacher 17#3 (1984) pp. 355-384 DOI: 10.2307/493146 online Kohn, Richard H.
"The Social History of the American Soldier: A Review and Prospectus for
Research", American Historical Review, 86 (June 1981), 553–67. in
JSTOR Lee, Wayne E. "Mind and Matter – Cultural Analysis in American
Military History: A Look at the State of the Field", Journal of American
History, 93 (March 2007), 1116–42. Fulltext: History Cooperative and Ebsco
Lynn, John A. "Rally Once Again: The Embattled Future of Academic Military
History", Journal of Military History, 61 (Oct. 1997), 777–89.
Mearsheimer, John J. Liddell Hart and the Weight of History. (1988). 234 pp.
Messenger, Charles, ed. Reader's Guide to Military History (Routledge, 2001),
948 pp; detailed guide to the historiography of 500 topics excerpt and text
search Morillo, Stephen. What is Military History (2006) Moyar, Mark. "The
Current State of Military History", The Historical Journal (2007), 50:
225–40 online at CJO Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich, eds.
The Routledge History of Global War and Society (2018) [2] Muehlbauer, Matthew
S., and David J. Ulbrich. Ways of War: American Military History from the
Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century (2018) [3] Murray, Williamson and
Richard Hart Sinnreich, eds. The Past as Prologue: The Importance of History to
the Military Profession (2006). Noe, Kenneth W., George C. Rable and Carol
Reardon. "Battle Histories: Reflections on Civil War Military
Studies" Civil War History 53#3 2007. pp. 229+. online edition Porch,
Douglas. "Writing History in the 'End of History' Era: Reflections on
Historians and the GWOT" Journal of Military History 2006 70(4):
1065–79. on war on terror, 2001–present Reardon, Carol. Soldiers and
Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military History, 1865–1920. U.
Press of Kansas 1990. 270 pp. ISBN 978-0-7006-0466-1. Reid, Brian Holden.
"American Military History: the Need for Comparative Analysis."
Journal of American History 2007 93(4): 1154–57. Reid, Brian Holden, and
Joseph G. Dawson III, eds., "Special Issue: The Vistas of American
Military History, 1800–1898", American Nineteenth Century History, 7
(June 2006), 139–321. Riseman, Noah. "The Rise of Indigenous Military
History." History Compass (2014) 12#12 pp. 901–11. cover 20th
century. DOI: 10.1111/hic3.12205. Spector, Ronald H. "Teetering on the
Brink of Respectability." Journal of American History 2007 93(4):
1158–60. online Spiller, Roger. "Military History and its
Fictions." Journal of Military History 2006 70(4): 1081–97. online
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