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The Cleomenean War (229/228–222) was
fought by Sparta and its ally, Elis, against the Achaean League and Macedon.
The war ended in a Macedonian and Achaean victory. In 235, Cleomenes III (r.
235–222) ascended the throne of Sparta and began a program of reform aimed
at restoring traditional Spartan discipline while weakening the influence of
the ephors, elected officials who, though sworn to uphold the rule of Sparta's
kings, had by the time of Cleomenes come to wield extraordinary political power
in the Spartan system. When, in 229, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize a town
on the border with Megalopolis, the Achaeans declared war. Cleomenes responded
by ravaging Achaea. At Mount Lycaeum he
defeated an army under Aratus of Sicyon, the
strategos of the Achaean League, that had been sent to attack Elis, and then
routed a second army near Megalopolis. In quick succession, Cleomenes cleared
the cities of Arcadia of their Achaean garrisons, before crushing another
Achaean force at Dyme.
Facing Spartan domination, Aratus was forced to turn to Antigonus III Doson (r.
229–221) of Macedon. In return for Macedonian assistance, the Achaeans
were obliged to surrender the citadel overlooking Corinth to Antigonus.
Cleomenes eventually invaded Achaea, seizing control of Corinth and Argos, but
was forced to retreat to Laconia when Antigonus arrived in the Peloponnese.
Cleomenes fought the Achaeans and the Macedonians at Sellasia, where the Spartans were routed. He
then fled to the court of his ally, Ptolemy III of Egypt (r. 246–222),
where he ultimately committed suicide in the wake of a failed revolt against
the new Pharaoh, Ptolemy IV (r. 221–205).
Opponents: Sparta, Elis versus the Achaean League, and Macedonia
Commanders and leaders:
Spartans - Cleomenes III
Achaeans -Aratus, Macedonians Antigonus III Doson
Strength:
Spartans - ~20,000 (at largest muster)
Achaeans~30,000 (at largest muster)
Prelude:
Cleomenes III ascended the throne of Sparta in 236 or 235, after deposing his
father, Leonidas II. His accession to power ended a decade-long period of
heightened conflict between the two royal families. Sparta's ancient dual
kingship was explained by the founding legend that the original conquerors of
Sparta were twin brothers and their descendants shared Sparta. During the
turmoil, Leonidas II had executed his rival king, the reformist
Agis IV. In 229, Cleomenes
took the important cities Tegea, Mantineia, Caphyae, and Orchomenus in Arcadia,
who had by then allied themselves with the Aetolian League, a powerful Greek
confederation of city states in central Greece.
Historians Polybius and Sir William Smith claim that Cleomenes seized the
cities by treachery; however, Richard Talbert, who translated Plutarch's
account of Sparta, and historian N. G. L. Hammond say Cleomenes occupied them
at their own request. Later that year, the ephors sent Cleomenes to seize the
Athenaeum, near Belbina. Belbina was one of the entrance points into Laconia
and was disputed at the time between Sparta and Megalopolis. Meanwhile, the
Achaean League summoned a meeting of her assembly and declared war against
Sparta. Cleomenes in return fortified his position. Aratus of Sicyon, the
strategos of the Achaean League, tried to re-take Tegea and Orchomenus in a
night attack. Efforts from inside the city failed, though, and Aratus quietly
retreated, hoping to remain unnoticed. Cleomenes nonetheless discovered the
plan and sent a message to Aratus asking about the goal of his expedition.
Aratus replied that he had come to stop Cleomenes from fortifying Belbina.
Cleomenes responded to this by saying: "If it's all the same to you, write
and tell me why you brought along those torches and ladders."
Early years and Spartan success:
A two maps of the Peloponnese, showing locations of main cities and of the
three most important battles in the
Cleomenean War.
After fortifying Belbina, Cleomenes advanced into Arcadia with 3,000 infantry
and a few cavalry. However, he was called back by the ephors, and this retreat
allowed Aratus to seize Caphyae as soon as Cleomenes returned to Laconia. Once
this news reached Sparta, the ephors sent Cleomenes out again; he managed to
capture the Megalopian city Methydrium before ravaging the territory
surrounding Argos. Around this time, the Achaean League sent an army under a
new strategos—Aristomachos of Argos, who had been elected in May
228—to meet Cleomenes in battle. The Achaean army of 20,000 infantry and
1,000 cavalry advanced on the 5,000-strong Spartan army at Pallantium. Aratus,
who had accompanied Aristomachos, advised him to retreat because even 20,000
Achaeans were no match for 5,000 Spartans. Aristomachos, listening to Aratus'
advice, retreated with the Achaean army. Meanwhile, Ptolemy III of Egypt, who
had been an ally of the Achaean League in their wars against Macedon, shifted
his financial support to Sparta. Ptolemy made this decision after calculating
that a resurgent Sparta would be a more valuable ally against Macedon than a
failing Achaean League.
In May 227, Aratus was once again elected strategos and attacked Elis. The
Elians appealed to Sparta for aid; as the Achaeans were returning from Elis,
Cleomenes attacked and routed their entire army near Mount Lycaeum. Taking advantage of a rumour that
he had been killed during the fighting, Aratus attacked and seized Mantinea.
Meanwhile, the Eurypontid King of Sparta Eudamidas III, son of Agis IV, died.
Pausanias, the Greek writer, claims that Cleomenes had him poisoned. In order
to strengthen his position against the ephors, who were opposed to his
expansionist policy, Cleomenes recalled his uncle Archidamus V from his exile
in Messene to ascend the Eurypontid throne, but as soon as Archidamus returned
to the city, he was assassinated. Cleomenes' involvement in the plot is
unclear, since ancient sources contradict each other: Polybius claims that
Cleomenes ordered the murder, but Plutarch disagrees.
Battle of Ladoceia and reforms:
Later in 227, Cleomenes bribed the ephors to allow him to continue his campaign
against the Achaeans. Having succeeded with his bribe, Cleomenes advanced into
the territory of Megalopolis and captured the village of Leuctra. In response,
an Achaean army arrived, relieved the city, and inflicted a minor defeat on the
Spartan army based nearest the city walls. Cleomenes was therefore obliged to
retreat with his troops across a series of ravines. Aratus ordered the Achaeans
not to pursue the Spartans across the ravine, but Lydiadas of Megalopolis
disobeyed the order and charged with the cavalry in pursuit of the Spartans.
Taking advantage of the difficult terrain and the scattered cavalry, Cleomenes
sent his Cretan and Tarentine soldiers against Lydiadas. They routed the
cavalry, and Lydiadas was amongst the dead. The Spartans, encouraged by these
events, charged against the main Achaean forces and defeated the entire army.
The Achaeans were so outraged and demoralized by Aratus' failure to support
Lydiadas that they made no further attacks in that year. Cleomenes, now
confident of the strength of his position, began plotting against the ephors.
He first recruited his stepfather, persuading him of the need to do away with
the ephors. Cleomenes contended they could then make the ephors' property
common to all citizens and work toward the achievement of Spartan supremacy in
Greece. Having won over his stepfather, Cleomenes started preparing his
revolution. Employing the men he considered most likely to oppose him (probably
in an attempt to get them killed), he captured Heraea and Asea. He also brought
in food for the citizens of Orchomenus—which the Achaeans were
besieging—before camping outside Mantinea. This campaign exhausted his
opponents, who asked to remain in Arcadia so they could rest. Cleomenes then
advanced upon Sparta with his mercenaries and sent some loyal followers to slay
the ephors. Four of the five ephors were killed; the sole survivor was
Agylaeus, who managed to escape and sought sanctuary in a temple. With the
ephors vanquished, Cleomenes initiated his reforms.
First, he handed over his land to the state; he was soon followed by his
stepfather and his friends, and then by the rest of the citizens. He divided up
all of the Spartan land, awarding an equal lot to each citizen. He increased
the citizen population by granting citizenship to some perioeci, who
constituted the Spartan middle class, but did not at that time have Spartan
citizenship. Expanding the citizen population meant that Cleomenes could build
a larger army; he trained 4,000 hoplites and restored the old Spartan social
and military discipline. He also strengthened his army by introducing the
Macedonian sarissa (pike). Cleomenes completed his reforms by placing his
brother, Eucleidas, in charge, making him the first Agiad king on the
Eurypontid throne.
Domination of the Peloponnese:
Ptolemy III of Egypt offered continued assistance to Cleomenes on the condition
that the Spartan king would offer his mother and children as hostages.
Cleomenes hesitated but his mother, after learning of Ptolemy's offer, went
voluntarily to Egypt. In 226, the citizens of Mantinea appealed to Cleomenes to
expel the Achaeans from the city. One night, he and his troops crept into the
citadel and removed the Achaean garrison before marching off to nearby Tegea.
From Tegea, the Spartans advanced into Achaea, where Cleomenes hoped to force
the League to face him in a pitched battle. Cleomenes advanced with his army to
Dyme, where he was met by the entire Achaean army. In the Battle of Dyme, the Spartans routed the Achaean phalanx,
killing many of the Achaeans and capturing others. Following this victory,
Cleomenes captured the city of Lasium and presented it to the Elians. The
Achaeans were demoralized by this battle; Aratus declined the generalship, and
when both Athens and the Aetolian League turned down their appeals, they sued
Cleomenes for peace. Initially, Cleomenes advanced only minor requests, but as
the talks continued, his demands became greater and he eventually insisted that
leadership of the League be surrendered to him. In exchange, he would return to
the Achaeans the prisoners and strongholds he had seized. The Achaeans invited
Cleomenes to Lerna, where they were holding council. While marching there,
Cleomenes drank too much water, which caused him to lose his voice and cough up
blood—a situation that forced him to return to Sparta. Aratus took
advantage of this incident, and began plotting against Cleomenes with King
Antigonus III Doson of Macedon. Previously, in 227, two ambassadors from
Megalopolis had been sent to Macedon to request help. Antigonus showed little
interest at the time, and these efforts failed. Aratus wanted the Macedonian
king to come to the Peloponnese and defeat Cleomenes, but Antigonus asked for
control of Acrocorinth in return. This was a sacrifice that the League was not
willing to make, however, and they declined to seek help from Macedon.
When the Achaeans arrived at Argos for an assembly, Cleomenes came down from
Tegea to meet them. However, Aratus—who had reached an agreement with
Antigonus—demanded that Cleomenes present 300 hostages to the Achaeans and
enter the city alone, or approach the city with all his forces. When this
message reached Cleomenes, he declared that he had been wronged and once again
declared war on the Achaeans. Achaea was now in turmoil, and some cities were
close to revolt; many residents were angered at Aratus' decision to invite the
Macedonians into the Peloponnese. Some also hoped that Cleomenes would
introduce constitutional changes in their cities. Encouraged by this
development, Cleomenes invaded Achaea and seized the cities of Pellene,
Pheneus, and Penteleium, effectively splitting the Achaean League in half. The
Achaeans, concerned about developing treachery in Corinth and Sicyon,
dispatched their mercenaries to garrison the cities and then went to Argos to
celebrate the Nemean Games. Cleomenes estimated that Argos would be easier to
capture while filled with festival-goers and spectators to cause panic. During
the night, he seized the rugged area above the city's theatre. The people of
the city were too terrified to offer resistance. They accepted a garrison,
delivered twenty hostages to Cleomenes and became Spartan allies. The capture
of Argos gave Cleomenes' reputation a massive boost, since no Spartan king had
ever managed to seize Argos. Even Pyrrhus of Epirus, one of the most famous
generals of the age, had been killed while trying to take the city. Soon after
the seizure of Argos, Cleonae and Phlius surrendered themselves to Cleomenes.
Meanwhile, Aratus was in Corinth investigating those suspected of supporting
Sparta. When he heard what had happened at Argos, Aratus expected the city to
fall to Sparta. He summoned an assembly and, with all the citizens present, he
took his horse and fled to Sicyon. The Corinthians did surrender the city to
Cleomenes, but the Spartan king criticized them for failing to arrest Aratus.
Cleomenes sent his stepfather Megistonous to Aratus, asking for the surrender
of Acrocorinth—the citadel of Corinth, which had an Achaean
garrison—in return for a large amount of money. In quick succession,
Hermione, Troezen, and Epidaurus surrendered to Cleomenes, who went from Argos
to Corinth and started besieging the citadel. He sent a messenger to Aratus
proposing that Acrocorinth should be garrisoned jointly by both the Spartans
and the Achaeans, and that he would deliver a twelve talent pension. Aratus
faced the hard decision of whether to give the city to Antigonus or to let it
fall to Cleomenes. He chose to conclude an alliance with Antigonus and sent his
son as a hostage to Macedon. Cleomenes invaded the territory of Sicyon and
blockaded Aratus inside the city for three months before Aratus was able to
escape to attend the Achaean council at Aegium.
Macedonian intervention:
Antigonus, who had brought with him a large force of 20,000 infantry and 1,300
cavalry, was marching through Euboea towards the Peloponnese. The hostile
Aetolian League occupying parts of Thessaly had threatened to oppose him if he
went further south than Thermopylae, despite their neutrality at that point in
the war. Aratus met Antigonus at Pagae, where he was pressured by Antigonus
into giving Megara to Boeotia. When Cleomenes heard of the Macedonian advance
through Euboea, he abandoned his siege of Sicyon and constructed a trench and
palisade running from Acrocorinth to the Isthmus. He chose this location to
avoid facing the Macedonian phalanx head-on. Despite numerous attempts to break
through the defensive line and reach Lechaeum, Antigonus' force failed and
suffered considerable losses. These defeats took such a toll on Antigonus that
he considered abandoning his attack on the palisade and moving his army to
Sicyon. However, Aratus was visited one evening by some friends from Argos who
invited Antigonus to come to their city. The Argives were ready to revolt under
the command of Aristoteles, as they were irritated that Cleomenes had not made
any reforms in the city. Antigonus sent 1,500 men under the command of Aratus
to sail to Epidaurus and, from there, march to Argos. At the same time the
Achaean strategos for the year, Timoxenos, advanced with more men from Sicyon.
When the Achaean reinforcements arrived, the entire city except for the citadel
was in the hands of the Argives.
A map which depicts the area around the Gulf of Corinth.
When Cleomenes heard about the revolt at Argos, he sent his stepfather with
2,000 men to try and save the situation. Megistonous was killed while
assaulting the city, however, and the relief force retreated, leaving the
Spartans in the citadel to continue resistance. Cleomenes abandoned his much
stronger position at the Isthmus for fear of being encircled and left Corinth
to fall into the hands of Antigonus. Cleomenes advanced his troops upon Argos
and forced his way into the city, rescuing the men stuck in the citadel. He
retreated to Mantinea when he saw Antigonus' army on the plain outside the
city. After retreating into Arcadia and receiving news of his wife's death,
Cleomenes returned to Sparta. This left Antigonus free to advance through
Arcadia and on the towns that Cleomenes had fortified, including
Athenaeum—which he gave to Megalopolis. He continued to Aegium, where the
Achaeans were holding their council. He gave a report on his operations and was
made chief-in-command of all the allied forces. Antigonus took the opportunity
to revive the Hellenic League of Philip II of Macedon, under the name League of
Leagues. Most of the Greek city states took part in the league. These included
Macedon, Achaea, Boeotia, Thessaly, Phocis, Locris, Acarnania, Euboea, and
Epiros.
Peter Green claims that for Antigonus, the League was just a way to further
Macedon's power. In the early spring of 223, Antigonus advanced upon Tegea. He
was joined there by the Achaeans and together they laid siege to it. The
Tegeans held out for a few days before being forced to surrender by the
Macedonians' siege weapons. After the capture of Tegea, Antigonus advanced to
Laconia, where he found Cleomenes' army waiting for him. When his scouts
brought news that the garrison of Orchomenus was marching to meet Cleomenes,
however, Antigonus broke camp and ordered a forced march; this caught the city
by surprise and forced it to surrender. Antigonus proceeded to capture
Mantinea, Heraea, and Telphusa, which confined Cleomenes to Laconia. Antigonus
then returned to Aegium, where he gave another report about his operations
before dismissing the Macedonian troops to winter at home. Knowing that
Cleomenes got the money to pay for his mercenaries from Ptolemy, Antigonus,
according to Peter Green, seems to have ceded some territory in Asia Minor to
Ptolemy in return for Ptolemy withdrawing his financial support of Sparta.
Whether this assumption is accurate or not, Ptolemy certainly withdrew his
support, which left Cleomenes without money to pay for his mercenaries.
Desperate, Cleomenes freed all helots able to pay five Attic minae; in this way
he accumulated 500 talents of silver. He also armed 2,000 of the ex-helots in
Macedonian style to counter the White Shields, the Macedonian crack troops,
before planning a major initiative.
Fall of Megalopolis:
Cleomenes noted that Antigonus had dismissed his Macedonian troops and only
traveled with his mercenaries. At the time Antigonus was in Aegium, a three-day
march from Megalopolis. Most of the Achaeans of military age had been killed at
Mount Lycaeum and Ladoceia. Cleomenes ordered his army to take five days' worth
of rations and sent his troops toward Sellasia, to give the appearance of
raiding the territory of Argos. From there he went to the territory of
Megalopolis; during the night he ordered one of his friends, Panteus, to
capture the weakest section of the walls, while Cleomenes and the rest of the
army followed. Panteus managed to capture that section of the wall after
killing the sentries. This allowed Cleomenes and the rest of the Spartan army
to enter the city. When dawn came, the Megalopolitans realised that the
Spartans had entered the city; some of them fled, while others stood and fought
against the invaders. Cleomenes' superior numbers forced the defenders to
retreat, but their rearguard action allowed most of the population to
escape—only 1,000 were captured. Cleomenes sent a message to Messene,
where the exiles had gathered, offering to give back their city if they became
his allies. The Megalopolitans refused; in retaliation the Spartans ransacked
the city and burnt it to the ground. Nicholas Hammond estimated that Cleomenes
managed to accumulate around 300 talents of loot from the city.
Battle of Sellasia:
The destruction of Megalopolis shook the Achaean League. Cleomenes set off with
his army to raid the territory of Argos, knowing that Antigonus would not
resist him due to a lack of men. Cleomenes also hoped that his raid would cause
the Argives to lose confidence in Antigonus because of his failure to protect
their territory.
Walbank describes this raid as being "an impressive demonstration, but it
had no effect other than to make it even more clear that Cleomenes had to be
defeated in a pitched battle." In the summer of 222, Antigonus summoned
his troops from Macedon, who arrived together with other allied forces.
According to Polybius, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 Macedonian
infantry, most of them armed as phalangites, 3,000 peltasts, 1,200 cavalry,
3,000 mercenaries, 8,600 Greek allies, and 3,000 Achaean infantry, making a
total of 29,200 men. Cleomenes had fortified all the passes into Laconia with
barricades and trenches before setting off with his army of 20,000 men to the
pass at Sellasia, on the northern border of Laconia.
Overlooking the pass at Sellasia were two hills, Evas and Olympus. Cleomenes
positioned his brother, Eucleidas, with the allied troops and the Perioeci on
Evas; he stationed himself on Olympus with 6,000 Spartan hoplites and 5,000
mercenaries. When Antigonus reached Sellasia with his army, he found it well
guarded and decided against storming the strong position. Instead he pitched
camp near Sellasia and waited for several days. During this time, he sent
scouts to reconnoiter the areas and feign attacks on Cleomenes' position.
Unable to force a move from Cleomenes, Antigonus decided to risk a pitched
battle. He positioned some of his Macedonian infantry and Illyrians facing the
Evas hill in an articulated phalanx. The Epirots, the Acarnanians and 2,000
Achaean infantry stood behind them as reinforcements. The cavalry took a
position opposite Cleomenes' cavalry, with 1,000 Achaean and Megalopolitan
infantry in reserve. Together with the rest of his Macedonian infantry and
mercenaries Antigonus took his position opposite that of Cleomenes. The battle
started when the Illyrian troops on the Macedonian right wing attacked the
Spartan force on Evas. The Spartan light infantry and cavalry, noticing that
the Achaean infantry was not protected at the rear, launched an assault on the
back of the Macedonian right wing, and threatened to rout it. However, at the
critical moment, Philopoemon of Megalopolis (who later became one of the
greatest heroes of the Achaean League, eventually conquering Sparta), tried to
point out the danger to the senior cavalry commanders. When they did not take
notice of him, Philopoemon gathered a few other cavalrymen and charged the
Spartan cavalry. The Spartans attacking from the rear broke off their
engagement with the enemy, which encouraged the Macedonians to charge at the
Spartan positions. The Spartans' left flank was eventually forced back and
thrown from their position and their commander, Eucleidas, killed; they fled
the field.
Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanx on the left flank engaged the Spartan phalanx
and mercenaries. During the initial assault, the Macedonian phalanx gave a
considerable amount of ground before its weight drove back the Spartan phalanx.
The Spartans, overwhelmed by the deeper ranks of Macedonian phalanx, were
routed, but Cleomenes managed to escape with a small group of men. The battle
was very costly for the Spartans; only 200 of the 6,000 Spartans that fought
survived the battle.
Aftermath:
Following his defeat at Sellasia, Cleomenes briefly returned to Sparta and
urged the citizens to accept Antigonus' terms. Under cover of darkness, he fled
from Sparta with some friends and went to the city's port of Gythium, where he
boarded a ship heading to Egypt. Antigonus entered Sparta triumphantly, its
first foreign conqueror. Nevertheless, he treated the population generously and
humanely. He ordered that the reforms of Cleomenes be revoked, and restored the
ephors, although he did not force Sparta to join the League. However,
Antigonus' failure to restore the Spartan kings suggests to historian Graham
Shipley that this restoration of laws was a sham. Within three days, he left
Sparta and returned to Macedon to deal with a Dardani invasion, leaving a
garrison in Acrocorinth and Orchomenos. With Cleomenes' defeat, Sparta's power
collapsed and it fell into the hands of successive tyrants. On his arrival at
Alexandria, Cleomenes was greeted by Ptolemy, who welcomed him with smiles and
promises. At first Ptolemy was guarded towards Cleomenes, but soon came to
respect him and promised to send him back to Greece with an army and a fleet.
He also promised to provide Cleomenes with an annual income of twenty-four
talents. However, before he could fulfill his promise, Ptolemy died—and
with him any hope for Cleomenes to return to Greece, as the weak Ptolemy IV
ascended the throne. Ptolemy IV began treating Cleomenes with neglect and soon
his chief minister, Sosibius, had Cleomenes put under house arrest after he was
falsely accused of plotting against the king. In 219, Cleomenes and his friends
escaped from house arrest and ran through the streets of Alexandria, trying to
encourage an uprising against Ptolemy. When this failed, Cleomenes and all of
his friends committed suicide.
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