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The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought in 326 between Alexander the
Great and King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the
banks of the Jhelum River (known to the Greeks as Hydaspes) in the Punjab
region of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Punjab, Pakistan).
Opponents:
Macedon - Hellenic League Persian allies Indian allies
Paurava
Commanders and leaders:
Alexander the Great Craterus Coenus Hephaestion Ptolemy Perdiccas Seleucus
Lysimachus Demonicus Peucestas Taxiles
Porus Spitakes Sons of Porus
Strength:
Alexander - 40,000 infantry, 5,000 to 7,000, cavalry, Asiatic contingents
Porus -20,000, 30,000 or 50,000 infantry, 2,000 to 4,000 cavalry, 200, 130
("likeliest" according to Green), or 85 war elephants, 1,000
chariots.
Casualties and losses:
Alexander - 80 –700 infantry, 230–280 cavalry killed. Modern
estimates ˜1000 killed.
Porus - 12,000 killed and 9,000 captured, or 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry
killed.
The battle resulted in a Greek victory and the surrender of Porus.
Large areas of the Punjab between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Hyphasis (Beas)
rivers were absorbed into the Alexandrian Empire, and Porus was reinstated as a
subordinate ruler. Alexander's decision to cross the monsoon-swollen river
despite close Indian surveillance, in order to catch Porus's army in the flank,
has been referred to as one of his "masterpieces". Although
victorious, it was also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians. The
resistance put up by King Porus and his men won the respect of Alexander, who
asked Porus to become one of his satraps.
The battle is historically significant for opening up the Indian subcontinent
to Ancient Greek political (Seleucid, Greco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek) and cultural
influences (Greco-Buddhist art), which continued to have an impact for many
centuries.
Location:
The battle took place on the east bank of the Hydaspes River (now called the
Jhelum River, a tributary of the Indus River) in what is now the Punjab
Province of Pakistan. Alexander later founded the city of Nicaea on the site;
this city has yet to be discovered. Any attempt to find the ancient battle site
is complicated by considerable changes to the landscape over time. For the
moment, the most plausible location is just south of the city of Jhelum, where
the ancient main road crossed the river and where a Buddhist source mentions a
city that may be Nicaea. The identification of the battle site near modern
Jalalpur/Haranpur is certainly erroneous, as the river (in ancient times)
meandered far from these cities.
Background:
After Alexander defeated the last of the Achaemenid Empire's forces under
Bessus and Spitamenes in 328, he began a new campaign to further extend his
empire towards India in 327. After fortifying Bactria with 10,000 men,
Alexander commenced his invasion of India through the Khyber Pass. While
possessing a much larger army, at the battle, an estimated 40,000 infantry and
5,000 cavalry crossed the river in time to engage the enemy. During this
battle, Alexander suffered heavy losses compared to his earlier victories. The
primary Greek column entered the Khyber Pass, but a smaller force under the
personal command of Alexander went through the northern route, taking the
fortress of Aornos (modern-day Pir-Sar) along the way—a place of
mythological significance to the Greeks as, according to legend, Herakles had
failed to occupy it when he campaigned in India. Here, the Hindu clans of Hindu
Kush gave Alexander's army the toughest opposition they had faced, but
Alexander still emerged victorious, despite being outnumbered, depending on the
source, somewhere between 3:1 and 5:1. In early spring of the next year,
Alexander formed an alliance with Taxiles (also known as Ambhi Kumar), the King
of Taxila. They combined their forces against Taxiles's neighbour, the King of
Hydaspes, King Porus, who had chosen to spurn Alexander's command for him to
surrender and was preparing for war.
Motives:
Alexander had to subdue King Porus in order to keep marching east. To leave
such a strong opponent at his flanks would have endangered any further
exploits. Alexander could not afford to show any weakness if he wanted to keep
the loyalty of the already subdued Indian princes. Porus had to defend his
kingdom and chose the perfect spot to check Alexander's advance. Although he
lost the battle, he became the most successful recorded opponent of Alexander.
According to historian Peter Green, Porus's performance in the battle
out-classed both Memnon of Rhodes and Spitamenes.
Pre-battle manoeuvres:
Alexander's crossing of the Hydaspes River:
Alexander fixed his camp in the vicinity of the town of Jhelum on the right
bank of the river. In the spring of 326, Porus drew up on the south bank of the
Jhelum River to repel any crossing. The Jhelum River was deep and fast enough
that any attempt at a crossing would probably doom the attacking force.
Alexander knew that a direct approach had little chance of success and tried to
find alternative fords. He moved his mounted troops up and down the river bank
each night while Porus shadowed him. Eventually, Alexander found and used a
suitable crossing, about 27 km (17 mi) upstream of his camp. This was where an
uninhabited, wood-covered island divided the river. While leading his troops
across, he landed on the island, while his troops waded across. His plan was a
classic pincer manoeuvre. He would eventually attack Indian cavalry flanking
both sides of Porus's main force from the right. He left his general,
Craterus, behind with most
of the army, to make sure Porus would not find out about his crossing, while he
crossed the river upstream with a strong contingent, consisting, according to
the 2nd century AD Greek historian Arrian, of 6,000 on foot and 5,000 on
horseback, though it was probably larger. Craterus was ordered to either ford
the river and attack if Porus faced Alexander with all his troops or to hold
his position if Porus faced Alexander with only part of his army. The other
forces commanded by Meleager, Attalus, and Gorgias were ordered to cross the
river in various places during the manoeuvre. Alexander's crossing of the
Hydaspes in the face of Indian forces on the opposite bank was a notable
achievement. The complex preparations for the crossing were accomplished with
the use of numerous feints and other forms of deception. Porus was kept
continuously on the move until he decided it was a bluff and relaxed. On every
visit to the site of the crossing, Alexander made a detour inland to maintain
the secrecy of the plan. It was also reported that there was an Alexander
look-alike who held sway in a mock royal tent near the base. Alexander quietly
moved his part of the army upstream and then traversed the river in utmost
secrecy, using ‘skin floats filled with hay’ as well as ‘smaller
vessels cut in half, the thirty oared galleys into three’. Furthermore,
Craterus engaged in frequent feints suggesting that he may cross the river. As
a result, Porus, 'no longer expecting a sudden attempt under cover of darkness,
was lulled into a sense of security.' Alexander mistakenly landed on an island,
but soon crossed to the other side. Porus perceived his opponent's manoeuvre
and sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son, also named Porus, to
fight them off, hoping that he would be able to prevent his crossing. By chance
a storm occurred that night which drowned out the sounds of the crossing.
Having crossed the river, Alexander advanced towards the location of Porus's
camp with all his horsemen and foot archers, leaving his phalanx to follow up
behind. Upon meeting with young Porus's force, his horse archers showered the
latter with arrows, while his heavy cavalry immediately charged without forming
into line of battle. Young Porus also faced an unexpected disadvantage: his
chariots were immobilized by the mud near the shore of the river. His small
force was completely routed by Alexander's outnumbering cavalry, with he
himself among the dead. As news reached the elder Porus, he understood that
Alexander had crossed to his side of the river and hastened to face him with
the best part of his army, leaving behind a small detachment to disrupt the
landing of Craterus's force should he attempt to cross the river.
Battle:
Combined attack of cavalry and infantry. Eventually the two forces met and
arrayed themselves for the battle. The Indians were poised with cavalry on both
flanks, fronted by their chariots, while their center comprising infantry with
war elephants stationed every fifty feet in front of them, to deter the
Macedonian cavalry. The Indian war elephants were heavily armoured and had
castle-like howdahs on their back carrying a trio of archers and javelin men.
The Pauravan soldiers were dressed in flamboyantly hued outfits with steel
helmets, bright scarves and baldrics, and wielded axes, lances and maces.
Porus, eschewing the usual tradition of Indian kings fighting from a chariot,
was mounted atop his tallest war elephant. This animal in particular was not
equipped with a howdah, as the king was clad in chain mail armour and hence had
no need of the additional protection of a tower. Alexander, noticing that
Porus's disposition was strongest in the center, decided to attack with his
cavalry first on the flanks, having his phalanx hold back until the Indian
cavalry had been neutralized. The Macedonian heavy infantry phalanx were
outnumbered 1:5 against the Indian infantry. However the latter were at
significant disadvantage in close combat due to their lack of armour and the
long reach of their opponent's sarissas. Even their heavy armour-piercing bows
were inaccurate because of the slippery ground, though the muddy ground was
also an advantage to the lighter-armored Indians. Alexander commenced the
battle by sending his Dahae horse archers to harass the Indian right-wing
cavalry. His armoured Companion Cavalry was sent to attack their outnumbered
Indian counterparts on the left wing, with Alexander himself leading the charge
as was his habit. The rest of the Indian cavalry galloped to the aid of their
hard-pressed kinsmen from the right wing, but Coenus's squadrons promptly
followed their movement and attacked them from the rear. The Indian horsemen
tried to form a double phalanx to face both attacks, but the necessary
complicated manoeuvres brought even more confusion into their ranks, making it
easier for the Macedonian cavalry to defeat them. The Indian cavalry were thus
routed, and fled to the safety of their elephants. The war elephants now
advanced against the Macedonian cavalry, only to be confronted by the
Macedonian phalanx. The powerful beasts caused heavy losses among the
Macedonian foot, impaling many men with their steel-clad tusks and heaving some
of them into the air before pulverizing them, and trampling and disorganizing
their dense lines. Nevertheless, the Macedonian infantry resisted the attack
bravely, with light infantry who tossed javelins at the elephants' mahouts and
eyes while the heavy infantry attempted to hamstring the elephants with the
two-sided axes and kopis.
Meanwhile, the Indian horsemen attempted another sally, only to be repulsed
once again by Alexander's cavalry squadrons, who had all massed together. The
elephants were eventually repulsed and fled back to their own lines. Many of
their mahouts had been struck down by Macedonian missiles before they could
kill their panicked mounts with poisoned rods, and hence the maddened animals
wrought enormous havoc, trampling many of their own infantry and cavalry to
death.
Finally, the Macedonian pezhetairoi locked their shields and advanced upon the
confused enemy mass, while the Macedonian cavalry charged from the rear in a
classic "hammer and anvil" manoeuvre, putting the entire Paurava army
to rout.
Meanwhile, Craterus and his force in the base camp had succeeded in crossing
the river, and arriving just at the right moment proceed to conduct a thorough
pursuit on the fleeing Indians. Throughout the battle, Alexander is said to
have observed with growing admiration the valour of Porus, and understood that
Porus intended to die in combat rather than be captured. Hoping to save the
life of such a competent leader and warrior, Alexander commanded Taxiles to
summon Porus for surrender. However, Porus became enraged on the very sight of
his nemesis and tossed a spear at him in fury without bothering to listen to
his proposal. Porus's aggressive response forced Taxiles to take flight on his
steed. In a similar manner, many other messengers dispatched by the determined
Alexander were spurned until at last Meroes, a personal friend of Porus,
convinced him to listen to Alexander's message. Overpowered by thirst, the
weary Porus finally dismounted his war elephant and demanded water. After being
refreshed, he allowed himself to be taken to Alexander. On hearing that the
Indian King was approaching, Alexander himself rode out to meet him and the
famous surrender meeting took place.
According to Arrian, Macedonian losses amounted to 80 foot soldiers, ten horse
archers, twenty of the Companions and 200 other horsemen. However the military
historian J.F.C. Fuller saw Diodorus's casualty figures of 1,000 men killed as
more realistic. This was certainly a high figure for the victorious army, and
more than the Macedonian losses at Gaugamela, yet not improbable considering
the partial success of the Indian war elephants.
Indian losses amounted to 23,000 according to Arrian, 12,000 dead and over
9,000 men captured according to Diodorus. The last two numbers are remarkably
close, so it might be assumed that Arrian added any prisoners to the total
Indian casualties. Among the Indian leadership, two sons of Porus and his
relative and ally Spitakes were killed during the battle, as well as most of
his chieftains. Around 80 elephants were captured alive. Alexander also
acquired an additional 70 war elephants due to the late arrival of
reinforcements called for by King Porus after the battle was already over, who
readily surrendered and offered these beasts as a tribute.
Aftermath and legacy:
When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat
me as a king would treat another king". Impressed, Alexander indeed
treated him like a king, allowing him to retain his lands. Following the
battle, Alexander founded two cities in this region, one at the spot of the
battle called Nicaea (Greek for Victory) in commemoration of his success and
one on the other side of the Hydaspes called Alexandria Bucephalus, to honour
his faithful steed, which died soon after this battle. In 326, the army of
Alexander approached the boundaries of the Nanda Empire. His army, exhausted
from the continuous campaigning and concerned at the prospect of facing yet
another gigantic Indian army, demanded that they should return to the west.
This happened at the Hyphasis (modern Beas). Historians do not consider that
this action by Alexander's troops represented a mutiny but called it an
increase in military unrest amongst the troops, which forced Alexander to
finally give in. Instead of immediately turning back, however, he ordered the
army to march south, along the Indus, securing the banks of the river as the
borders of his empire.
Defeat of Porus by the Macedonians:
The main reasons for the Pauravans' defeat were Alexander's use of tactics, and
the Macedonians' superior discipline and technology. The Pauravans used
chariots which were inferior to the Greek's cavalry and phalanx. They did not
have a well supported military infrastructure or a standing army. The Pauravan
infantry and cavalry were poorly armoured, lacking in metal armour, and their
short swords were no match against the long spears of the Macedonians. Porus
himself failed to take the initiative, mainly trying to counter his opponent's
moves. Greek historians agree that Porus fought bravely until the end. During
the later rule of the Maurya Empire, tactician Kautilya took the Battle of the
Hydaspes as a lesson and highlighted the need for military training before
battle. The first Mauryan emperor, Chandragupta, maintained a standing army.
The chariot corps played a marginal role in Mauryan military infrastructure.
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