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The Battle of Magnesia took place in either
December 190 or January 189 . It was fought as part of the Roman–Seleucid
War, pitting forces of the Roman Republic led by the consul Lucius Cornelius
Scipio Asiaticus and its Pergamene allies under Eumenes II against a Seleucid
army of Antiochus III the Great. The two armies initially camped north-east of
Magnesia ad Sipylum in Asia Minor (modern day Manisa, Turkey), attempting to
provoke each other into a battle on favorable terrain for several days. When
the battle finally began, Eumenes managed to throw the Seleucid left flank into
disarray. While Antiochus' cavalry overpowered his adversaries on the right
flank of the battlefield, his army's center collapsed before he could reinforce
it. Modern estimates give 10,000 dead for the Seleucids and 5,000 killed for
the Romans. The battle resulted in a decisive Roman-Pergamene victory, which
led to the Treaty of Apamea, which ended Seleucid domination in Asia Minor.
Oppoenents: Roman Republic and Kingdom of Pergamon versus Seleucid Empire
Commanders and leaders:
Rome - Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus Eumenes and II of Pergamum
Seleucids - Antiochus III the Great and Zeuxis Seleucus
Strength:
Romans - 30,000 (ancient sources) 30,000 – 50,000 (modern estimates) 16
war elephants
Selucids -72,000 (ancient sources) 50,000 – 72,000 (modern estimates) 54
war elephants
Casualties and losses:
Romans - 349 dead and many wounded (ancient sources) 5,000 dead (modern
estimates)
Selucids - 53,000 dead as well as 1,400 and 15 war elephants captured (ancient
sources) 10,000 dead (modern estimates)
Background:
Following his return from his Bactrian (210-209 ) and Indian (206-205 )
campaigns the Seleucid king Antiochus III the Great forged an alliance with
Philip V of Macedon, seeking to jointly conquer the territories of the
Ptolemaic Kingdom. In 198, Antiochus emerged victorious in the Fifth Syrian
War, taking over Coele-Syria and securing his south-eastern border. He then
focused his attention on Asia Minor, launching a successful campaign against
coastal Ptolemaic possessions. In 196, Antiochus used the opportunity of
Attalus I's death to assault cities controlled by the Attalid dynasty. Fearing
that Antiochus will seize the entirety of Asia Minor, the independent cities
Smyrna and Lampsacus decided to appeal for protection from the Roman Republic.
In the early spring of 196 , Antiochus' troops crossed to the European side of
the Hellespont and began rebuilding the strategically important city of
Lysimachia. In October 196 , Antiochus met with a delegation of Roman diplomats
in Lysimachia. The Romans demanded that Antiochus withdraw from Europe and
restore the autonomous status of Greek city states in Asia Minor. Antiochus
countered by claiming that he was simply rebuilding the empire of his ancestor
Antiochus II Theos and criticized the Romans for meddling in the affairs of
Asia Minor states, whose rights were traditionally defended by Rhodes.
In late winter 196/195, Rome's erstwhile chief enemy, Carthaginian general
Hannibal, fled from Carthage to Antiochus' court in Ephesus. Despite the
emergence of pro-war party led by Scipio Africanus, the Roman Senate exercised
restraint. The Seleucids expanded their holdings in Thrace from Perinthus to
Maroneia at the expense of Thracian tribesmen. Negotiations between the Romans
and the Seleucids resumed, coming to a standstill once again, over differences
between Greek and Roman law on the status of disputed territorial possessions.
In the summer of 193, a representative of the Aetolian League assured Antiochus
that the Aetolians would take his side in a future war with Rome, while
Antiochus gave tacit support to Hannibal's plans of launching an anti-Roman
coup d'état in Carthage. The Aetolians began spurring Greek states to
jointly revolt under Antiochus' leadership against the Romans, hoping to
provoke a war between the two parties. The Aetolians then captured the
strategically important port city of Demetrias, killing the key members of the
local pro-Roman faction. In September 192 , Aetolian general Thoantas arrived
at Antiochus' court, convincing him to openly oppose the Romans in Greece. The
Seleucids selected 10,000 infantry, 500 cavalry, 6 war elephants and 300 ships
to be transferred for their campaign in Greece.
Prelude:
The Seleucid fleet sailed via Imbros and Skiathos, arriving at Demetrias where
Antiochus' army disembarked. The Achaean League declared war on the Seleucids
and Aetolians, with the Romans following suit in November 192 . Antiochus
forced Chalcis to open its gates to him, turning the city into the base of his
operations. Antiochus then shifted his attention towards rebuilding his
alliance with Philip V of Macedon, which had been shattered after the latter
was decisively defeated by the Romans at the 197 Battle of Cynoscephalae.
Philip expected that the Romans would emerge victorious in the conflict and
counted on territorial rewards as well as the writing off of war reparations
that he owed; while the Seleucids could provide neither, so Antiochus'
overtures were rejected and Philip aligned himself with the Romans. Between
December 192 and March 191, Antiochus campaigned in Thessaly and Acarnania. A
combined counter offensive conducted by the Romans and their Macedonian allies
erased all of Antiochus' gains in Thessaly within a month. On 26 April 191, the
two sides faced off at the Battle of Thermopylae, Antiochus' army suffered a
devastating defeat and he returned to Ephesus shortly afterwards. The Seleucids
then attempted to destroy the Roman fleet before it could unite with those of
Rhodes and the Attalids. In September 191, the Roman fleet defeated the
Seleucids in the Battle of Corycus, enabling it to take control of several
cities including Dardanus and Sestos on the Hellespont. In May 190, Antiochus
invaded the Kingdom of Pergamon, ravaging the countryside and besieging its
capital and forcing its king, Eumenes II, to return from Greece. In August 190,
the Rhodians defeated Hannibal's fleet at the Battle of the Eurymedon. A month
later a combined Roman-Rhodean fleet defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of
Myonessus. The Seleucids could no longer control the Aegean Sea, opening the
way for a Roman invasion of Asia Minor. Antiochus withdrew his armies from
Thrace, while simultaneously offering to cover half of the Roman war expenses
and accept the demands made in Lysimachia in 196 . Yet the Romans were
determined to crush the Seleucids once and for all. As the Roman forces reached
Maroneia, Antiochus began preparing for a final decisive battle. The Romans
advanced through Dardanus to the River Caecus where they united with
Eumenes’ army.
Armies:
The two main historical accounts of the battle come from Livy’s Ab Urbe
Condita Libri and Appian’s Syriaca. Both of the authors agree that the
Roman army was about 30,000 man strong and the Seleucids fielded approximately
72,000 soldiers. However, modern historians disagree on the issue, with some
believing the estimates found in primary sources, while others claim that the
two armies might have both numbered some 50,000 men. Additionally the Romans
had 16 war elephants at their disposal, while the Seleucids fielded 54. A
popular anecdote regarding the array of the two armies is that Antiochus
supposedly asked Hannibal whether his vast and well-armed formation would be
enough for the Roman Republic, to which Hannibal tartly replied, "Quite
enough for the Romans, however greedy they are." The left wing of the
Seleucids was commanded by Antiochus' son Seleucus and his nephew Antipater. It
was composed of Cyrtian slingers and Elymaean archers, 4,000 peltasts, 1,500
Illyrians, 1,500 Carians and Cilicians, 1,000 Neocretans. The rest of the left
wing consisted of 2,500 Galatian and 500 Tarentine light cavalry, 1,000 royal
cavalry, 3,000 cataphracts, 2,000 Cappadocian infantry, 16 war elephants and a
miscellaneous force of 2,700 light infantry.
The center was formed by a 16,000 man strong Macedonian phalanx, commanded by
Philip, the master of the elephants. It was deployed into ten 1,600 man strong
taxeis, 50 men wide and 32 men deep. Twenty war elephants separated into pairs
and deployed in the gaps between the taxeis, the phalanx was supported by 1,500
Galatian and 1,500 Atian infantry.
The right flank was led by Antiochus, it consisted of 3,000 cataphracts, 1,000
agema cavalry, 1,000 argyraspides of the royal guard, 1,200 Dahae horse
archers. 2,500 Mysian archers, 3,000 Cretan and Illyrian light infantry, 4,500
Cyrtian slingers and Elymaean archers as well as a reserve of 16 war elephants.
At the front of the left flank, stood units of scythed charioteers and a unit
of camel-borne Arab archers. To their immediate right, Minnionas and Zeuxis
commanded 6,000 psiloi light infantry. The war camp was guarded by 7,000 of the
least combat-ready Seleucid troops.
The left wing of the Romans was commanded by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus. It
numbered 10,800 heavy infantrymen drawn from among the Romans and Rome's Latin
allies, along with four cavalry companies of 100 to 120 men.
The center likewise consisted of 10,800 Roman and Latin heavy infantrymen, and
was commanded by consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. The Roman infantry
was divided into three lines, with the youngest soldiers standing at the front,
in a more open formation than their adversaries, granting them flexibility.
The right flank was led by Eumenes, and was made up of 2,800 to 3,000 cavalry,
the majority being Romans supplemented by an 800-man Pergamene force. There
were also 3,000 Achaean and Pergamene light infantry and 800 Cretan and
Illyrian archers. The rearguard was formed by 2,000 Thracian and Macedonian
volunteers and 16 African war elephants that were considered inferior to the
Asian war elephants deployed by the Seleucids.
Battle:
The battle took place either in December 190 or January 189. The Romans
advanced from Pergamon towards Thyatira where they expected to encounter
Antiochus. Antiochus was determined to fight his adversaries on the ground of
his own choosing, his army marched from the direction of Sardis towards
Magnesia ad Sipylum; camping 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) north-east of the city.
Magnesia had already served as a battlefield for the Seleucids in 281 where
they had emerged victorious in the Battle of Corupedium. Upon learning that the
Seleucids had left Thyatira, the Romans marched for five days towards the River
Phrygios, camping north of the River Hermos, 6.5 kilometres (4.0 mi) from the
Seleucid camp. Antiochus dispatched a party of 1,000 Galatian and Dahae cavalry
to lure the Romans into a more exposed position, however the Romans refused to
be drawn out. Three days later, the Romans moved their camp into a horseshoe
shaped plain some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) from the Seleucid camp, which was
surrounded by the Phrygios and Hermos rivers from three sides, by which the
Romans hoped to limit the effectiveness of Seleucid cavalry. The Seleucids once
again sent an elite 3,000-man detachment to harass the Romans. During the
following five days, the two armies lined up for battle, without engaging each
other. Scipio Asiaticus, the Roman commander, found himself in a zugzwang. He
could not hope to win the battle by directly assaulting the heavily fortified
Seleucid camp. By refusing to engage he risked getting his supply lines cut by
the numerically superior enemy cavalry. Turning back would have caused Roman
morale to plunge as campaigns were halted during the winter. Additionally
Scipio wished to achieve a decisive victory over the Seleucids before a new
consul was sent out from Rome to replace him. The Romans then advanced to the
point where the Phrygios makes a 90 degree turn towards the north, leaving
their right flank unprotected by the rivers. Antiochus was satisfied with the
location, accepting the Roman challenge on the dawn of the third day after the
last Roman advance.
The battle began on the Seleucid left flank when Eumenes sent forward his
archers, slingers and spearmen to harass the Seleucid scythed chariots. The
latter began fleeing in panic after suffering heavy casualties. This caused
confusion among the camel-borne Arab archers and cataphracts positioned behind
them. Eumenes then charged with his cavalry, before the cataphracts could
properly redeploy. The Roman and Pergamene cavalry broke through the Seleucid
left flank, causing the cataphracts to flee to the Seleucid camp. The
Galatians, Cappadocians and mercenary infantry to the left of the phalanx,
faced a simultaneous attack from the Roman center and the right flank. Causing
them to retreat to the rear and exposing the phalanx's left flank.
On the Seleucid right flank, Antiochus led the attack with the cataphracts and
agema cavalry facing the Latin infantry, while the argyraspides engaged the
Roman legionnaires. The Roman infantry broke ranks retreating to their camp
where they were reinforced by the Thracians and Macedonians and subsequently
rallied by tribune Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Antiochus's cavalry was unsuitable
for taking the camp and he became bogged down in the fighting while his forces
were badly needed elsewhere.
In the center, the Seleucid phalanx held its ground against Roman infantry,
however it was not mobile enough to dislodge the enemy archers and slingers who
bombarded it with projectiles. It began a slow organized retreat, when the war
elephants positioned between its taxeis began panicking because of the
projectiles, causing the phalanx to break formation. The phalangites discarded
their weapons, abandoning the battlefield. By the time Antiochus' cavalry had
returned to reinforce the center, his army had already dispersed. He gathered
the surviving troops and retreated to Sardes, while the Romans were busy
looting his camp.
Aftermath:
The reduced empire (titled: Syria, Kingdom of the Seleucids) and the expanded
states of Pergamum and Rhodes, after the defeat of Antiochus III by Rome. Circa
188 . Antiochus' defeat at Magnesia marked the end of the Macedonian phalanx's
dominance across Hellenistic period battlefields. According to Livy’s Ab
Urbe Condita Libri the Seleucids lost 53,000 men killed, as well as 1,400
soldiers and 15 war elephants captured. The same source claims that the Romans
lost 349 men dead and many wounded. Modern estimates give 10,000 dead for the
Seleucids and 5,000 killed for the Romans. Shortly after arriving at Sardes,
Antiochus learnt that Seleucus had survived the battle and headed to Apamea to
meet him. The defeat at Magnesia and the transfer of the Seleucid fleet from
Ephesus to Patara led the garrisons of numerous cities including Sardes,
Ephesus, Thyatira and Magnesia ad Sipylum to surrender to the Romans. Antiochus
dispatched Zeuxis and Antipater to the Romans, in order to secure a truce. The
truce was signed at Sardes in January 189 , whereupon Antiochus agreed to
abandon his claims on all lands west of the Taurus Mountains, paid a heavy war
indemnity and promised to hand over Hannibal and other notable enemies of Rome
from among his allies.
The Romans sought to subjugate Asia Minor and punish Antiochus' allies,
starting the Galatian War. In mainland Greece they suppressed the Athamanians
and Aetolians who broke the terms of a previous truce. During the summer of
189, ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire, Pergamon, Rhodes and other Asia
Minor states held peace talks with the Roman Senate. Lycia and Caria were given
to Rhodes, while the Attalids received Thrace and most of Asia Minor west of
the Taurus. The independence of Asia Minor city states that sided with the
Romans before the Battle of Magnesia was guaranteed. Antiochus further agreed
to withdraw all his troops from beyond the Taurus, refuse passage and support
to enemies of Rome. The conditions also included the requirement to hand over
Hannibal, Thoantas and 20 notables as hostages, destroy all his fleet apart
from 10 ships and give Rome 40,500 modiuses of grain per year. The terms were
put into effect in the summer of 188 with the signing of the Treaty of Apamea.
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