| |
Ancient Macedonian army From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Ancient Macedonian military) Jump to navigation Jump to search
This article is about the army of the Kingdom of Macedonia under Philip II and
Alexander the Great. For the army of the Kingdom of Macedonia under the
Antigonid dynasty, see Antigonid Macedonian army. Ancient Macedonian army
Participant in Rise of Macedon, Alexander's Balkan campaign, the Wars of
Alexander the Great Hypaspist.jpg Hypaspist in light equipment (modern
reconstruction by J. Shumate) Leaders Philip II of Macedon, Alexander III of
Macedon Headquarters Pella, Babylon Area of operations Greece, Illyria, Thrace,
Danube Delta, Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Judea, Egypt, Mesopotamia,
Babylonia, Persia, Sogdiana, Bactria, Punjab, India Size 32,000+ - the field
army for Alexander the Great's invasion of the Achaemenid Empire - according to
Diodorus Siculus. This figure fluctuated, for example at Gaugamela, Alexander
commanded at least 47,000 soldiers. Part of Kingdom of Macedon Allies League of
Corinth. Opponent(s) Illyrians, Thracians, Phocis, Athens, Thebes, Sparta,
Achaemenid Empire, Kingdom of Porus, Scythians. Battles and war(s) Battle of
Crocus Field, Battle of Chaeronea, Battle of Thebes, Battle of Granicus, Battle
of Issus, Battle of Gaugamela, Battle of the Hydaspes Became Armies of the
Diadochi - Hellenistic armies (Antigonid Macedonian army, Seleucid army,
Ptolemaic army) The army of the Kingdom of Macedon was among the greatest
military forces of the ancient world. It was created and made formidable by
King Philip II of Macedon; previously the army of Macedon had been of little
account in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia had been regarded as
a second-rate power. The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted
and refined by Philip II, and he created a uniquely flexible and effective
army. By introducing military service as a full-time occupation, Philip was
able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks. In a
remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one of the finest military
machines of the ancient world. Tactical improvements included the latest
developments in the deployment of the traditional Greek phalanx made by men
such as Epaminondas of Thebes and Iphicrates of Athens. Philip II improved on
these military innovators by using both Epaminondas' deeper phalanx and
Iphicrates' combination of a longer spear and smaller and lighter shield.
However, the Macedonian king also innovated; he introduced the use of a much
longer spear, the two-handed pike. The Macedonian pike, the sarissa, gave its
wielder many advantages both offensively and defensively. For the first time in
Greek warfare, cavalry became a decisive arm in battle. The Macedonian army
perfected the co-ordination of different troop types, an early example of
combined arms tactics — the heavy infantry phalanx, skirmish infantry,
archers, light cavalry and heavy cavalry, and siege engines were all deployed
in battle; each troop type being used to its own particular advantage and
creating a synergy of mutual support. The new Macedonian army was an
amalgamation of different forces. Macedonians and other Greeks (especially
Thessalian cavalry) and a wide range of mercenaries from across the Aegean and
Balkans were employed by Phillip. By 338 BC, more than a half of the army for
his planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia came from outside the
borders of Macedon — from all over the Greek world and the nearby
barbarian tribes, such as the Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians. After
Philip's death, his successor, Alexander the Great, used the army to conquer
the Achaemenid Empire. Unfortunately, most of the primary historical sources
for this period have been lost. As a consequence, scholarship is largely
reliant on the works of Diodorus Siculus and Arrian, plus the incomplete
writings of Curtius, all of whom lived centuries later than the events they
describe.[1]
Origins Philip II of Macedon - Roman medallion depicting the Macedonian king.
If Philip II of Macedon had not been the father of Alexander the Great, he
would be more widely known as a first-rate military innovator, tactician and
strategist, and as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander would
have been impossible without the army his father created. Considered
semi-barbarous by some metropolitan Greeks, the Macedonians were a martial
people; they drank deeply of unwatered wine (the very mark of a barbarian) and
no youth was considered to be fit to sit with the men at table until he had
killed, on foot with a spear, a wild boar.[2] When Philip took over control of
Macedon, it was a backward state on the fringes of the Greek world and was
beset by its traditional enemies: Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. The basic
structure of the army inherited by Philip II was the division of the companion
cavalry (hetairoi) from the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various
allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.[3] The foot companions
existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian
troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian
Empire fighting the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC.[4] Macedonian
cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after
their involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), at times siding
with either Athens or Sparta and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead
of relying on Macedonian infantry.[5] Macedonian infantry in this period
consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was
composed of noblemen eager to win glory.[6] An early 4th-century BC
stone-carved relief from Pella shows a Macedonian hoplite infantryman wearing a
pilos helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence
on the Macedonian army before Philip II.[7] Nicholas Sekunda states that at the
beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of
10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for
the 5th century BC.[8] However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for
Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a
degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians
are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or
even higher than the numbers stated).[9]
Philip's first achievement was to unify Macedon through his army. He raised
troops and made his army the single fount of wealth, honour and power in the
land; the unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the officers and elite
cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants became the footsoldiers. Philip
took pains to keep them always under arms and either fighting or drilling.
Manoeuvres and drills were made into competitive events, and the truculent
Macedonians vied with each other to excel.[10] As a political counterbalance to
the native-born Macedonian nobility, Philip invited military families from
throughout Greece to settle on lands he had conquered or confiscated from his
enemies, these 'personal clients' then also served as army officers or in the
Companion cavalry. After taking control of the gold-rich mines of Mount
Pangaeus, and the city of Amphipolis that dominated the region, he obtained the
wealth to support a large army. It was a professional army imbued with a
national spirit, an unusual combination for the Greek world of the time. The
armies of contemporary Greek states were largely reliant on a combination of
citizens and mercenaries. The former were not full-time soldiers, and the
latter, though professional, had little or no inherent loyalty to their
employers. By the time of his death, Philip's army had pushed the Macedonian
frontier into southern Illyria, conquered the Paeonians and Thracians, asserted
a hegemony over Thessaly, destroyed the power of Phocis and defeated and
humbled Athens and Thebes. All the states of Greece, with the exception of
Sparta, Epirus and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon (League of
Corinth) and Philip was laying the foundations of an invasion of the Persian
Empire, an invasion that his son would successfully undertake.[11] One
important military innovation of Philip II is often overlooked, he banned the
use of wheeled transport and limited the number of camp servants to one to
every ten infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform made the
baggage train of the army very small for its size and improved its speed of
march.[12]
Troop types and unit organisation Heavy cavalry The Companion cavalry Main
article: Companion cavalry Coin of Perdikkas II showing a Macedonian cavalryman
armed with two long javelins Alexander the Great as a cavalryman. He wears a
helmet in the form of the lion-scalp of Herakles. Detail of the so-called
Alexander Sarcophagus, excavated at Sidon. Macedonian cavalryman (wearing a
Thracian helmet and wielding a xyston lance) riding down a Persian footsoldier,
fresco in the Kinch Tomb, 310–290 BC, Lefkadia The Companion cavalry, or
Hetairoi (?ta????), were the elite arm of the Macedonian army, and have been
regarded as the finest quality cavalry in the ancient world. Along with
Thessalian cavalry contingents, the Companions — raised from landed
nobility — made up the bulk of the Macedonian heavy cavalry. Central
Macedonia was good horse-rearing country and cavalry was prominent in
Macedonian armies from early times. However, it was the reforms in
organisation, drill and tactics introduced by Philip II that transformed the
Companion cavalry into a battle-winning force, especially the introduction of,
or increased emphasis on, the use of a lance and shock tactics. Coinage
indicates that from an early period the primary weapons used by Macedonian
cavalry were a pair of javelins. This remained true through to the reign of
Archelaus I (413–399). Subsequently, despite the adoption of the lance, it
is highly probable that the Companion cavalry continued to employ javelins when
on scouting or skirmishing missions.[13] The hetairoi were divided into
squadrons called ilai (singular: ile), each 200 men strong, except for the
Royal Squadron, which numbered 300. The Royal Squadron was also known as the
Agema - "that which leads". Each squadron was commanded by an
ilarches (ilarch) and appears to have been raised from a particular area of
Macedon. Arrian, for instance, described squadrons from Bottiaea, Amphipolis,
Apollonia and Anthemus.[14] It is probable that Alexander took eight squadrons
with him on his invasion of Asia totalling 1,800 men, leaving seven ilai behind
in Macedon (the 1,500 cavalrymen mentioned by Diodorus).[15] Between 330 BC and
328 BC, the Companions were reformed into regiments (hipparchies) of 2-3
squadrons. In conjunction with this, each squadron was divided into two lochoi.
This was probably undertaken to allow for the increase in size of each
squadron, as reinforcements and amalgamations meant that the Companion cavalry
grew in size. At this time, Alexander abandoned the regional organisation of
the ilai, choosing their officers regardless of their origins.[16] The
individual Companion cavalry squadrons were usually deployed in a wedge
formation, which facilitated both manoeuvrability and the shock of the charge.
The advantage of the wedge was that it offered a narrow point for piercing
enemy formations and concentrated the leaders at the front. It was easier to
turn than a square formation because everyone followed the leader at the apex,
"like a flight of cranes". Philip II introduced the formation,
probably in emulation of Thracian and Scythian cavalry, though the example of
the rhomboid formation adopted by Macedon's southern neighbours, the
Thessalians, must also have had some effect.[17]
The primary weapon of the Macedonian cavalry was the xyston, a double ended
cornel-wood lance, with a sword as a secondary weapon. From descriptions of
combat, it would appear that once in melee the Companion cavalryman used his
lance to thrust at the chests and faces of the enemy. It is possible that the
lance was aimed at the upper body of an opposing cavalryman in the expectation
that a blow which did not wound or kill might have sufficient leverage to
unseat. If the lance broke, the Companion could reverse it and use the other
end, or draw his sword. Cleitus, an officer of the Companions, saved Alexander
the Great's life at the Granicus by cutting off an enemy horseman's arm with
his sword.[18] Companion cavalrymen would normally have worn armour and a
helmet in battle.[19] Although the Companion cavalry is largely regarded as the
first real shock cavalry of Antiquity, it seems that Alexander was very wary of
using it against well-formed infantry, as attested by Arrian in his account of
the battle against the Malli, an Indian tribe he faced after Hydaspes. There,
Alexander did not dare assault the dense infantry formation with his cavalry,
but rather waited for his infantry to arrive, while he and his cavalry harassed
their flanks.[20] It is a common mistake to portray the Companion cavalry as a
force able to burst through compact infantry lines. Alexander usually launched
the Companions at the enemy after a gap had opened up between their units or
disorder had already disrupted their ranks. However, the ancient historian
Arrian implies that the Companion cavalry were successful in an assault, along
with heavy infantry, on the Greek mercenary hoplites serving Persia in the
closing stages of the Battle of Granicus. Their success may have been largely
due to the poor morale of the hoplites, who had just witnessed the rest of
their army broken and put to flight.[21] The original 1,800 Companions who
accompanied Alexander to Asia were augmented by 300 reinforcements arriving
from Macedon after the first year of campaigning. They were usually arrayed on
the right flank (this being the position of honour in Hellenic armies, where
the best troops would be positioned), and typically carried out the decisive
manoeuvre/assault of the battle under Alexander's direct leadership.[22]
Thessalian cavalry A heavy cavalryman of Alexander the Great's army, possibly a
Thessalian. He wears a cuirass (probably a linothorax) and a Boeotian helmet,
and is equipped with a scabbarded xiphos straight-bladed sword. Alexander
Sarcophagus. Following the defeat of Lycophron of Pherae and Onomarchos of
Phocis, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of the Thessalian League; his
death induced the Thessalians to attempt to throw off Macedonian hegemony, but
a short bloodless campaign by Alexander restored them to allegiance. The
Thessalians were considered the finest cavalry of Greece.[23] The Thessalian
heavy cavalry accompanied Alexander during the first half of his Asian campaign
and continued to be employed by the Macedonians as allies until Macedon's final
demise at the hands of the Romans. Its organization and weaponry were similar
to the Companion Cavalry, though the earlier Thessalian way of fighting
emphasised the use of javelins.[24] The Thessalian cavalry was famed for its
use of rhomboid formations, said to have been developed by the Thessalian Tagos
(head of the Thessalian League) Jason of Pherae. This formation was very
efficient for manoeuvring, as it allowed the squadron to change direction at
speed while still retaining cohesion.[25] The numbers given for Alexander's
invasion of the Persian Empire included 1,800 such men. This number would have
risen no higher than 2,000. They were typically entrusted with the defensive
role of guarding the left flank from enemy cavalry, allowing the decisive
attack to be launched on the right. They often faced tremendous opposition when
in this role. At Issus and Gaugamela, the Thessalians withstood the attack of
Persian cavalry forces, though greatly outnumbered.[26] At Ecbatana, the
Thessalians with Alexander's army were disbanded and sent home. Some remained
with the army as mercenaries, yet these too were sent home a year later when
the army reached the Oxus River.[26] Other Greek cavalry The Hellenic states
allied to, or more accurately under the hegemony of, Macedon provided
contingents of heavy cavalry and the Macedonian kings hired mercenaries of the
same origins. Alexander had 600 Greek cavalrymen at the start of his campaign
against Persia, probably organised into 5 ilai. These cavalrymen would have
been equipped very similarly to the Thessalians and Companions, but they
deployed in a square formation eight deep and sixteen abreast.[15] The Greek
cavalry was not considered as effective or versatile as the Thessalian and
Macedonian cavalry.[27]
Light cavalry Light cavalry, such as the prodromoi (literal trans. "those
who run ahead"), secured the wings of the army during battle and went on
reconnaissance missions. There is some ambiguity concerning the use of the term
prodromoi by the sources; it may have been used to describe any cavalry
undertaking a scouting, skirmishing or screening mission, or it may have
denoted a single unit, or indeed both.[28] Apart from the prodromoi (in the
sense of a single unit), other horsemen from subject or allied nations, filling
various tactical roles and wielding a variety weapons, rounded out the cavalry.
By the time Alexander campaigned in India, and subsequently, the cavalry had
been drastically reformed and included thousands of horse-archers from Iranian
peoples such as the Dahae (prominent at the Battle of Hydaspes).
Prodromoi/Sarissophoroi (cavalry unit) Main articles: Prodromoi and
Sarissophoroi Scholarship is divided as to the ethnic composition of the
prodromoi of the Macedonian army. Most authorities regard the prodromoi as
being raised from Macedonians, which would parallel the Athenian prodromoi, who
were raised from the Thetes, the lowest census class of Athenian citizens.[28]
Sekunda, however, gives them an origin from Thrace.[29] Arrian usually
differentiates the prodromoi from the Paeonian light cavalry, which suggests a
fixed ethnic composition.[28] This uncertainty is probably due to the lack of a
definite understanding of the use of the term prodromoi by the primary sources,
referred to above. The prodromoi, are sometimes referred to as sarissophoroi,
"pikemen" or "lancers", which leads to the conclusion that
they sometimes were armed with an uncommonly long xyston (believed to be 14 ft
long), though certainly not an infantry pike. In the primary sources, Arrian
mentions that Aretes commanded the prodromoi; in the same context Curtius says
that Aretes commanded the sarissophoroi. It would appear that the same unit of
cavalry was known by both names.[30] The prodromoi/sarissophoroi acted as
scouts, reconnoitering in front of the army when it was on the march. In
battle, they were used in a shock role to protect the right flank of the
Companion cavalry. Persian light cavalry took over these duties when they
became available to the Macedonian army following Gaugamela. The prodromoi then
assumed a purely battlefield role as shock cavalry. It is possible that the
prodromoi, due to their skill in wielding long lances and their extensive
battle experience, were considered more valuable in the role of shock cavalry,
especially after the departure of the Thessalian cavalry. Four ilai, each 150
strong, of prodromoi operated with Alexander's army in Asia.[31] At Gaugamela,
the prodromoi under Aretes were responsible for finally routing the Persian
left wing cavalry, winning the battle in this sector.[26]
Paeonian cavalry These light cavalry were recruited from Paeonia, a tribal
region to the north of Macedonia. The Paeones had been conquered and reduced to
tributary status by Philip II. Led by their own chieftains, the Paeonian
cavalry was usually brigaded with the Prodromoi and often operated alongside
them in battle. They appear to have been armed with javelins and swords and
are, unusually, described as carrying shields. Initially only one squadron
strong, they received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600 at
Susa.[32] Thracian cavalry Javelin-armed Thracian horseman - hunting wild boar.
Largely recruited from the Odrysian tribe, the Thracian cavalry also acted as
scouts on the march. In battle, they performed much the same function as the
Prodromoi and Paeonians, except they guarded the flank of the Thessalian
cavalry on the left wing of the army. The Thracians deployed in their ancestral
wedge formations and were armed with javelins and swords. At Gaugamela, the
Thracians fielded four ilai and were about 500 strong.[32] Horse archers In 329
BC, Alexander, while in Sogdiana, created a 1,000 strong unit of horse archers
that was recruited from various Iranian peoples. They were very effective at
scouting and in screening the rest of the army from the enemy. Firing their
bows whilst mounted, they offered highly mobile missile fire on the
battlefield. At the Battle of Hydaspes, the massed fire of the horse archers
was effective at disordering the Indian cavalry and helped to neutralise the
Indian chariots.[33]
Heavy infantry The Foot Companions Further information: Macedonian phalanx A
drawing of a Macedonian phalanx. The shields depicted are smaller and lighter
than those employed in a traditional hoplite phalanx, the sarissa is twice as
long as the hoplite spear and fully enclosed helmets weren't as widespread as
this drawing suggests. Painted depiction of a soldier wearing the linothorax,
from the Tomb of Judgement at Mieza in Imathia, Greece, 4th/3rd century BC
Suitable men from the Macedonian peasantry were recruited into an infantry
formation, called the phalanx. It was developed by Philip II, and later used by
his son Alexander the Great in his conquest of the Achaemenid Persian Empire.
These infantrymen were called Pezhetairoi, which translates as 'Foot
Companions'.[34] Philip II spent much of his youth as a hostage at Thebes,
where he studied under the renowned general Epaminondas, whose reforms formed
the basis of Philip's later tactics. The equipment of the Macedonian phalangite
is believed to have been influenced by the 'peltast' developed by the Athenian
general Iphicrates. The Iphicratean peltast was not a skirmisher but a form of
light hoplite, characterised by using a longer spear and smaller shield.[35]
However, the introduction of the sarissa pike in conjunction with a smaller
shield seem to have been innovations devised by Philip himself, or at the very
least he produced the definitive synthesis of earlier developments.[36]
Diodorus claimed that Philip was inspired to make changes in the organisation
of his Macedonian infantry from reading a passage in the writings of Homer
describing a close-packed formation.[37] Imitating the Greek example of martial
exercises and issuing of standard equipment for citizen soldiery, Philip II
transformed the Macedonian army from a levied force of farmers into a
well-trained fighting force.[38] Foot Companions were levied from the peasantry
of Macedon. Once levied they became professional soldiers. Discharge could only
be granted by the King. Under Philip, the Foot Companions received no regular
pay. This seems to have changed by Alexander's time as during the mutiny at
Opis in 324 BC, the men were chastised by Alexander for having run up debts
despite earning "good pay".[39] Through extensive drilling and
training, the Foot Companions were able to execute complex manoeuvres in
absolute silence, an ability that was fascinating and unnerving to enemies.[40]
These soldiers fought in close-ranked rectangular or square formations, of
which the smallest tactical unit was the 256 men strong syntagma or speira.
This formation typically fought eight or sixteen men deep and in a frontage of
thirty-two or sixteen men accordingly. Each file of 16 men, a lochos, was
commanded by a lochagos who was in the front rank. Junior officers, one at the
rear and one in the centre, were in place to steady the ranks and maintain the
cohesion of the formation, similar to modern-day NCOs. The commander of the
syntagma theoretically fought at the head of the extreme far-right file.
According to Aelian, a syntagma was accompanied by five additional individuals
to the rear: a herald (to act as a messenger), a trumpeter (to sound out
commands), an ensign (to hold the unit's standard), an additional officer
(called ouragos), and a servant. This array of both audial and visual
communication methods helped to make sure that even in the dust and din of
battle orders could still be received and given. Six syntagmata formed a taxis
of 1,500 men commanded by a strategos, a variable number of taxeis formed a
phalanx under a phalangiarch. On his Asian campaign, Alexander, had a phalanx
of 6 veteran taxeis, numbering 9,000 men. Between Susa and India a seventh
taxis was created. Antipater, as regent in Macedonia, was left with 8 taxeis of
younger, less-experienced recruits.[41]
Each phalangite carried as his primary weapon a sarissa, which was a type of
pike. The length of these pikes was such that they had to be wielded with two
hands in battle. The traditional Greek hoplite used his spear single-handed, as
the large hoplon shield needed to be gripped by the left hand, therefore the
Macedonian phalangite gained in both weapon reach and in the added force of a
two handed thrust. At close range, such large weapons were of little use, but
an intact phalanx could easily keep its enemies at a distance; the weapons of
the first five rows of men all projected beyond the front of the formation, so
that there were more spearpoints than available targets at any given time. The
men of the rear ranks raised their sarissas so as to provide protection from
aerial missiles. A phalangite also carried a sword as a secondary weapon for
close quarter fighting should the phalanx disintegrate. The phalanx, however,
was extremely vulnerable in the flanks and rear.[42] The phalangite was
equipped with a shield, often called the 'Telamon shield', which was smaller
and less deeply convex than the aspis shield employed by Greek hoplites (and
probably the hypaspists). The extent to which phalangites were armoured is
unclear, and may have changed over time. They were equipped with helmets and
greaves, but do not appear to have worn the thorax at the time of Philip II, as
this armour is not mentioned as forming part of the necessary equipment for
sarissa-armed infantry. The thorax is, however, shown being worn by an
infantryman on the Alexander Sarcophagus, however, this figure is equipped with
an 'aspis' shield and may depict a hypaspist, rather than a phalangite.[43] It
is indicated in the Military Decree of Amphipolis that the phalangites wore the
kotthybos, a form of defence of uncertain nature.[44][35] Alexander did not use
the phalanx as the decisive arm in his battles, but instead used it to pin and
demoralize the enemy while his heavy cavalry would charge selected opponents or
exposed enemy unit flanks, most usually after driving the enemy horse from the
field.[45] Polybius (18.31.5), emphasises that the phalanx required flat open
places for its effective deployment, as broken country would hinder and break
up its formation.[46] The phalanx carried with it a fairly minimal baggage
train, with only one servant for every ten men. This gave it a marching speed
that contemporary armies could not hope to match — on occasion forces
surrendered to Alexander simply because they were not expecting him to show up
for several more days. This was made possible thanks to the training Philip
instilled in his army, which included regular forced marches.[47]
Hypaspists The Hypaspists (Hypaspistai) were the elite arm of the Macedonian
infantry. The word 'hypaspists' translates into English as 'shield-bearers'.
During a pitched battle, such as Gaugamela, they acted as guard for the right
flank of the phalanx and as a flexible link between the phalanx and the
Companion cavalry. They were used for a variety of irregular missions by
Alexander, often in conjunction with the Agrianians (elite skirmishers), the
Companions and select units of phalangites. They were prominent in accounts of
Alexander's siege assaults in close proximity to Alexander himself. The
Hypaspists were of privileged Macedonian blood and their senior chiliarchy
(????a???a) formed the Agema[48] foot bodyguard of Alexander III.[49][50] The
organisation of the hypaspist regiment seems to have been into units of 500
(pentakosiarchies) before 331 and later, by 327, it was divided into three
battalions (chiliarchies) of 1,000 men, which were then further sub-divided in
a manner similar to the Foot Companions. Each battalion would be commanded by a
chiliarch, with the regiment as a whole under the command of an
archihypaspist.[51] In terms of weaponry, they were probably equipped in the
style of a traditional Greek hoplite with a thrusting spear or doru (shorter
and less unwieldy than the sarissa) and a large round shield (hoplon).[52] As
well as this, they would have carried a sword, either a xiphos or a kopis. This
would have made them far better suited to engagements where formations and
cohesion had broken down, making them well suited to siege assaults and special
missions. Their armour appears to have varied depending on the type of mission
they were conducting. When taking part in rapid forced marches or combat in
broken terrain, so common in the eastern Persian Empire, it appears that they
wore little more than a helmet and a cloak (exomis) so as to enhance their
stamina and mobility. However, when engaging in heavy hand-to-hand fighting,
for instance during a siege or pitched battle, they would have worn body armour
of either linen or bronze. This variety of armaments made them an extremely
versatile force. Their numbers were kept at full strength, despite casualties,
by continual replenishment through the transfer of veteran soldiers chosen from
the phalanx.[53] A new term for hypaspistai emerged after the Battle of
Gaugamela in 331 BC: the argyraspides ('silver shields').[54] The latter
continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of
Asian origin.[55] However, in regards to both the argyraspides and chalkaspides
('bronze shields'), Malcolm Errington asserts that "these titles were
probably not functional, perhaps not even official."[56] Sekunda states
that Alexander's pike-wielding infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of
which were elite hypaspistai and 9,000 of which were pezhetairoi.[57] However,
in discussing the discrepancies among ancient historians about the size of
Alexander the Great's army, N.G.L. Hammond and F.W. Walbank choose Diodorus
Siculus' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with
his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen.[58]
Greek hoplites An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of Agios
Athanasios, Thessaloniki, Greece, 4th century BC The army led by Alexander the
Great into the Persian Empire included Greek heavy infantry in the form of
allied contingents provided by the League of Corinth and hired mercenaries.
These infantrymen would have been equipped as hoplites with the traditional
hoplite panoply consisting of a thrusting spear (doru), bronze-faced hoplon
shield and body armour. In appearance, they would have been almost identical to
the hypaspists. In battle, the Greek hoplites had a less active role than the
Macedonian phalangites and hypaspists. At Gaugamela, the Greek infantry formed
the defensive rear of the box formation Alexander arranged his army into, while
the Macedonians formed its front face.[59] Nevertheless, they performed a
valuable function in facing down attempts by the Persian cavalry to surround
the Macedonian army and helped deal with the breakthrough of some Persian
horsemen who went on to attack the baggage.[60]
Light infantry Peltasts Agrianian peltast - modern reconstruction by Johnny
Shumate The peltasts raised from the Agrianes, a Paeonian tribe, were the elite
light infantry of the Macedonian army. They were often used to cover the right
flank of the army in battle, being posted to the right of the Companion
cavalry, a position of considerable honour. They were almost invariably part of
any force on detached duty, especially missions requiring speed of
movement.[61] Other nationalities also provided peltasts for the Macedonian
army. Especially numerous were the Thracians; the Thracian peltasts performed
the same function in battle as the Agrianians, but for the left wing of the
army. It is unclear if the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians fighting as
javelin throwers, slingers, and archers serving in Macedonian armies from the
reign of Philip II onward were conscripted as allies via a treaty or were
simply hired mercenaries.[62] Peltasts were armed with a number of javelins and
a sword, carried a light shield but wore no armour, though they sometimes had
helmets; they were adept at skirmishing and were often used to guard the flanks
of more heavily equipped infantry. They usually adopted an open order when
facing enemy heavy infantry. They could throw their javelins at will at the
enemy and, unencumbered by armour or heavy shields, easily evade any
counter-charges made by heavily equipped hoplites. They were, however, quite
vulnerable to shock-capable cavalry and often operated to particular advantage
on broken ground where cavalry was useless and heavy infantry found it
difficult to maintain formation.[63][64] Archers See also: Cretan archer Philip
II was also able to field archers, including mercenary Cretan archers and
perhaps some native Macedonians.[65] In most Greek states, archery was not
greatly esteemed, nor practised by native soldiery, and foreign archers were
often employed, such as the Scythians prominent in Athenian employ. However,
Crete was notable for its very effective archers, whose services as mercenaries
were in great demand throughout the Greek World. Cretan archers were famed for
their powerful bows, firing arrows with large, heavy heads of cast bronze. They
carried their arrows in a quiver with a protective flap over its opening.
Cretan archers were unusual in carrying a shield, which was relatively small
and faced in bronze. The carrying of shields indicates that the Cretans also
had some ability in hand-to-hand fighting, an additional factor in their
popularity as mercenaries.[66] Archers were also raised from Macedonia and
various Balkan peoples. Alexander inherited the use of Cretan archers from his
father's reign, yet around this time a clear reference to the use of native
Macedonian archers was made.[67] After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West
Asian backgrounds became commonplace and were organized into chiliarchies.[67]
The use of Asiatic soldiers under Alexander the Great According to Arrian,
Alexander used Arachosian, Bactrian, Parapamisadaean, Sogdian, Indian, and
Scythian troops. They were present at the grand army revue Alexander assembled
in 324 BC. Alexander was said to have been impressed by the drill of the 30,000
Persians who had been trained in the methods of the Macedonian phalanx.[68] The
army supposedly reached 120,000 front-line troops at one point. This did not
include camp followers. There has been considerable debate as to when Alexander
first used Orientals on active service with the army.[69] During his campaign
in Asia against the Persian Empire he formed a hipparchia (i.e. unit of a few
hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic
Persians.[70] The introduction of Asiatic troops into the army was actively
resented by many of the native Macedonians, especially when the cadre of young
Persians from aristocratic families was trained in Macedonian fighting
techniques and enrolled in the companion cavalry.[71] Alexander's reaction was
to make plans to rule Asia with a locally recruited army, but his death
intervened before he could carry out this plan. His successors reversed his aim
of diversifying the army and recruited Greeks and Macedonians almost
exclusively.[72]
Arms and armour An image depicting an ancient Macedonian shield displaying the
'Vergina Sun', a royal symbol. Excavated at Bonce, North Macedonia. Philip II's
phalangite infantry were equipped with a 'proto-Telamon shield' that already
diverged from the hoplon style shield featured in sculpted artwork of a
Katerini tomb, dated perhaps to the reign of Amyntas III of Macedon.[7] His
early infantry were also equipped with protective helmets and greaves, as well
as sarissa pikes, yet according to Sekunda they were eventually equipped with
heavier armour such as cuirasses, since the Third Philippic of Demosthenes in
341 BC described them as hoplites instead of lighter peltasts.[73] As evidenced
by the Alexander Sarcophagus, troops serving Alexander the Great were also
armoured in the hoplite fashion.[74] However, Errington argues that
breastplates were not worn by the phalanx pikemen of either Philip II or Philip
V's reign periods (during which sufficient evidence exists).[44] Instead, he
claims that breastplates were only worn by military officers, while pikemen
wore the kotthybos along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a dagger as a
secondary weapon along with their shields.[44] There is a considerable body of
evidence to suggest that the different classes of Macedonian soldier trained to
use a variety of arms and equipment. Certainly, cavalry, including Alexander
himself, fought on foot during sieges and assaults on fortified settlements,
phalangites are described using javelins and some infantrymen were trained to
ride horses. The deployment of differing types of armour and weapons was
dependent solely on the requirements of a particular tactical situation.[75]
Weapons The hunter on the right is wielding a kopis cutting sword, the hunter
on the left holds a scabbarded xiphos straight sword. Both types of sword were
used by Macedonian cavalry and infantry. Lion Hunt mosaic from the Macedonian
capital Pella, late 4th century BC. Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier
with a grounded spear. He wears 3 items of clothing, which, in combination, are
considered typcal of Macedonians: The kausia cap, the Macedonian type of
chlamys (cloak) and krepides (boots), from the tomb of Agios Athanasios,
Thessaloniki, Greece.[76] Most troops would have carried a type of sword as a
secondary weapon. The straight-bladed shortsword known as the xiphos (??f??) is
depicted in works of art, and two types of single-edged cutting swords, the
kopis and machaira, are shown in images and are mentioned in texts. An
archaeological find of a well-preserved Macedonian xiphos revealed a sword with
a blade length of 55 cm and a weight of 300g.[77] The cutting swords are
particularly associated with cavalry use, especially by Xenophon, but pictorial
representations would suggest that all three sword types were used by cavalry
and infantry without obvious distinction.[78] Each Companion cavalryman was
equipped with a 3-metre double-ended spear/lance with a cornel wood shaft
called the xyston. The double spear points meant that, should the xyston break
during a battle, the rider need only turn his weapon around to re-arm himself.
The Thessalian and Greek cavalry would have been armed similarly to the
Companions. The xyston was used to thrust either overarm or underarm with the
elbow flexed.[79] This is usefully illustrated in the Alexander Mosaic, King
Alexander is shown thrusting with his xyston underarm, whilst immediately
behind him a cavalryman is employing the overarm thrust. There is no evidence
that the Macedonian cavalry ever used a two-handed grip on their lances, as did
later Sarmatian and Roman lancers.[80] The shaft of the xyston was tapered
allowing the point of balance, and therefore the hand grip, to be approximately
two thirds of the length of the spear away from the point.[81] The armament of
the phalangites is described in the Military Decree of Amphipolis. It lists the
fines imposed upon the soldiers who fail to maintain their armament or produce
it upon demand. Offensive weapons were a pike (sarissa), and a short sword
(machaira). The sarissa was over 6 m (18 ft) in length, with a counterweight
and spiked end at the rear called a sauroter; it seems to have had an iron
sleeve in the middle which may mean that it was in two pieces for the march
with the sleeve joining the two sections before use. Like the xyston, the
sarissa was greatly tapered towards the point. This, along with the sauroter,
helped to make the point of balance as far towards the butt of the weapon as
possible. It should be stressed that the archaeological discoveries show that
the phalangites also used the two-edged sword (xiphos) as well as the
traditional Greek hoplite spear (doru/d???), which was much shorter than the
sarissa. The sources also indicate that the phalangites were on occasion armed
with javelins. The sarissa would have been useless in siege warfare and other
combat situations requiring a less cumbersome weapon.[82][83] Hypaspists and
allied and mercenary Greek heavy infantry were equipped as classic hoplites and
would have employed the hoplite spear and a sword.[84] Light troops were
provided by a number of subject and allied peoples. Various Balkan peoples,
such as Agrianes, Paeonians and Thracians, provided either light infantry or
cavalry or indeed both. Typical light infantry peltasts would be armed with a
number of javelins. The individual javelin would have a throwing thong attached
to the shaft behind its point of balance. The thong was wound around the shaft
and hooked over one or two fingers. The thong made the javelin spin in flight,
which improved accuracy, and the extra leverage increased the power of the
throw and the range achievable.[85] Foot archers, notably mercenary Cretans,
were also employed; Cretans were noted for the heavy, large-headed arrows they
used. Light cavalry could use lighter types of lance, javelins and, in the case
of Iranian horse archers, compact composite bows.[86]
Helmets A simple conical helmet (pilos) of a type worn by some Macedonian
infantrymen. A Thracian helmet. It lacks its cheek pieces. Boeotian bronze
helmet, the front of the helmet is to the right Virtually all helmets in use in
the Greek world of the period were constructed of bronze. One helmet prominent
in contemporary images was in the form of a Phrygian cap, that is it had a high
and forward-projecting apex, this type of helmet, also known as a
"Thracian helmet", had a projecting peak above the eyes and usually
had large cheek pieces which were often decorated with stylised beards in
embossing. Late versions of the Chalcidian helmet were still in use; this
helmet was a lightened form developed from the Corinthian helmet, it had a
nasal protection and modest-sized cheek pieces. Other, more simple, helmets of
the conical 'konos' or 'Pilos type', without cheek pieces, were also employed.
These helmets were worn by the heavy infantry.[87] The Thracian helmet was worn
by Macedonian cavalry in King Philip's day, but his son Alexander is said to
have preferred the open-faced Boeotian helmet for his cavalry, as recommended
by Xenophon.[88] The royal burial in the Vergina Tomb contained a helmet which
was a variation on the Thracian/Phrygian type, exceptionally made of iron, this
would support its use by cavalry.[89] Additionally, a fresco depicting a
Macedonian mounted lancer spearing an infantryman, from the Kinch Tomb, near
Naousa, shows the cavalryman wearing a Thracian type helmet.[90] The Boeotian
helmet, though it did not have cheek pieces, had a flaring rim which was folded
into a complex shape offering considerable protection to the face. The
Alexander Mosaic suggests that officers of the heavy cavalry had rank badges in
the form of laurel wreaths (perhaps painted or constructed from metal foil) on
their helmets.[91] The Alexander Sarcophagus shows Alexander the Great wearing
an elaborate helmet in the form of the lion scalp of Herakles. Alexander's
cousin Pyrrhus of Epirus is described as wearing a helmet with cheek pieces in
the shape of ram's heads. Many examples of helmets from the period have crest
or plume-holders attached, so that a high degree of martial finery could be
achieved by the wearing of imposing headpieces.[92]
Body armour Hellenistic muscle cuirass and a helmet derived from the
Thracian/Phrygian type, combined with elements of the Boeotian type Alexander
the Great in battle. The king wears a composite cuirass which copies the shape
of the linothorax. The shoulder elements and upper chest are of plate iron,
whilst the waist is composed of scale armour for ease of movement. There are
pteruges of leather or stiffened linen at the shoulders and hips. The king
wears a xiphos sword. Detail of the Alexander Mosaic (A Roman copy of a
Hellenistic painting). Body armour in the Macedonian army was derived from a
repertoire found throughout the Greek-speaking world. The most common form of
armour was the linothorax, which was a cuirass of stiff linen built up of glued
or stitched layers of textile; though it is possible that linen was used as a
facing material over leather.[93] It was composed of the 'girdle' a tubular
section, often of four vertical panels, that enclosed the torso. A
shoulder-piece was attached to the upper rear section of the girdle, this
element was split into two wings which were pulled forward over the top of each
shoulder and laced to the chest-section of the girdle. Ancient representations
show the shoulder pieces standing vertical when not laced down to the chest of
the corselet. This suggests that the linothorax as a whole was very stiff and
inflexible. Pteruges, strips of linen or leather, protected the upper arms and
hips of the wearer. The linothorax could be reinforced with plate bronze or
bronze scale elements. Defences of a similar appearance composed of quilted
textile are also described.[94][95] Less common, due to its expense, was the
muscle cuirass. This was a defence made entirely of plate bronze consisting of
a breast and backplate, usually with shoulder pieces, modelled in relief on the
form a muscular male torso. This was often given pteruges to extend the area of
the body covered.[96] A complete cuirass of plate iron, decorated with gold and
modelled on the form of the linothorax, was discovered in the Macedonian royal
burial at Vergina. This, alongside the evidence of the depiction of Alexander
the Great in the Alexander Mosaic, shows that the technology to make plate
armour in iron existed at this time.[97] It is to be doubted that this type of
armour was worn by persons other than of royal or very exalted rank.[98] All of
the above forms of armour could be described as thorakes (plural of thorax).
Other forms of armour are mentioned in original sources, such as the kotthybos
and a type of "half-armour" the hemithorakion (?µ?????????); the
precise nature of these defences is not known but it would be reasonable to
conclude that they were lighter and perhaps afforded less protection than the
thorax.[99] However, it has been suggested that when the terms kotthybos,
hemithorakion and thorax occur together, as in the Amphipolis regulation, then
thorax may refer specifically to the bronze muscle cuirass. Within the phalanx
the thorax and hemithorakion were reserved for hegemones, the officers.[100] It
has also been proposed that the kotthybos might refer to a form of linothorax.
It is recorded that Alexander ordered the burning of old armours, which
suggests that the armour in question was non-metallic.[101] Archaeological
remains exist for only one type of limb armour: bronze greaves, which protected
the lower leg. Greaves could be worn by both heavy infantry and heavy cavalry,
but they are not in great evidence in contemporary depictions. However, greaves
are mentioned in the Military Decree of Amphipolis and a pair of greaves, one
shorter than the other, were found in the Vergina Tomb.[102] Xenophon mentions
a type of armour called "the hand" to protect the left, bridle, arm
of heavy cavalrymen, though there is no supporting evidence for its widespread
use. It may have resembled the later manica armour used by Roman gladiators and
cataphract cavalry.[103]
Shields The Macedonian phalangite shield, also termed the 'Telamon shield', was
circular and displayed a slight convexity; its outer surface was faced by a
thin bronze sheet. The inner face of the shield was of wood or a multilayered
leather construction, with a band for the forearm fixed to the centre of the
shield. Plutarch noted that the phalangites (phalanx soldiers) carried a small
shield on their shoulder. This probably meant that, as both hands were needed
to hold the sarissa, the shield was worn suspended by a shoulder strap and
steadied by the left forearm passing through the armband. The left hand would
project beyond the rim of the shield to grip the sarissa. Recent
reconstructions of the sarissa and phalangite shield showed that the shoulder
strap supporting the shield effectively helps to transfer some of the weight of
the sarissa from the left arm to the shoulders when the sarissa is held
horizontally in its fighting position. The Macedonian phalangite shield is
described by Asclepiodotus (Tactica, 5) as being eight palms wide (equivalent
to 62 cm or 24 inches) and "not too hollow".[104][105] The lefthand
figure shows the armband and grip on the inside of a hoplon or Argive shield -
painted Corinthian krater c. 560BC. From pictorial sources, it is probable that
the Hypaspists, elite members of the infantry, including the Agema of the
King's personal foot guard, employed a shield of larger dimensions, the
traditional Greek hoplite shield called the hoplon or aspis (?sp??), it is also
referred to as the 'Argive shield'. This shield, also circular, was larger than
the phalangite shield, it had sheet-bronze facing over a wooden base; it was
held with the left forearm passing through a central armband with a hand-grip
set just inside the rim. This shield was more much convex than the phalangite
shield and had a projecting rim, both features precluding its use with a double
handed pike. The style of shield used by cavalry, if any, is less clear; the
heavy cavalry of Alexander's time did not employ shields.[106][107] Light
infantry javelineers would have used a version of the pelte (Ancient Greek:
p??t?) shield, from whence their name, peltast, derived. This was a light
shield made of leather-faced wicker. The shield was of Thracian origin and was
originally crescent-shaped, however, by the time of Macedonian greatness many
depictions of peltai show them as being oval or round.[108][109]
|
|
