MASKIROVKA OUTLINE FOR POI

1. General: This is an eight hour lecture course on Soviet principles and methods for planning operational maskirovka. The emphasis is on planning at front level and employment of techniques at tactical maskirovka as it fits into the planning at operational level. The course is designed for individuals planning to participate as members of OPFOR teams emulating Soviet division, army, and front headquarters. The course emphasizes the practical aspects of how camouflage is implemented to enable the staff officers to gain a better appreciation of what can and cannot be done in practice. The course presumes a considerable level of knowledge on the part of the students about general military affairs, tactics, operations, organization, weapons capabilities, and the like. It also presumes basic knowledge about the Soviet military, such as is given in the standard course of instruction at the Command and General Staff College. It is designed to be presented as one of a series of similar courses, and should be given after the students have already attended the sub-courses on operations and reconnaissance, since it presumes that they know the material presented in those courses.

2. Teacher Learning Objective: In conjunction with other sub-courses prepare students for roles as commander, chief of staff, and chief of operations at division, army, and front levels. Give the students an appreciation of the role of maskirovka in Soviet thinking and planning for operations.

3. Tasks:

Teach the fundamental principles for maskirovka in Soviet offensive operations.
Teach the principal measures employed by Soviets in implementing maskirovka.
Teach the Soviet views on past, current and future trends in maskirovka and its growing importance on the high technology battlefield.
Teach the methods for organizing maskirovka, preparing plans and issuing instructions governing its implementation.

Condition: Given reading materials and course material.

Standard: Students should have a general appreciation of the importance of maskirovka in Soviet theory of combat. They should have an introduction to the techniques and methods available for creating maskirovka on the battlefield. They should be able to begin work in an OPFOR team Soviet headquarters staff as operations officers able to make recommendations on what kinds of maskirovka might be desirable as part of operations planning and how this might be achieved.

4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.

5. Method of Instruction: Lectures, discussion, and exercise.

6. Author's Intent: Six hours of the course will be lectures and discussion of principles and methods. Two hours may be spent in a general look at the creation of a maskirovka plan at front level. Such topics as making estimates of the situation, reaching decisions, issuing orders and developing plans on maps and in documents are all covered in the course on operations planning. Therefore they do not need to be repeated in this course. Performing these functions with respect to maskirovka is no different than for other plans. In actual practice the operations directorate should develop its maskirovka plans as an integral part of the overall planning process. This is not something to be left for an after thought later. The intent, then, is to influence the student's thinking to insure that they integrate significant maskirovka efforts into their work as members of OPFOR staffs. However, only minimum attention is given to the technical aspects of how maskirovka may be achieved today, especially in such highly technical areas as radio electronic combat.

7. Equipment/Materials: View graphs.

8. Homework: none.

References: The following titles are a selection of books and articles containing information on basic aspects of maskirovka.
Adam, Kh, Engr. Lt. Col, and Gebel', R., "Military Camouflage," Military Thought, November 1971.
Asadulin, R. Maj. Gen., "Camouflage of Combat Formations in the Dynamics of Battle," Antiaircraft Defense Herald, August, 1983.
Beaumont, Roger, Maskirovka: Soviet Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception, The Center for Strategic Technology, The Texas Engineering Experiment Station, The Texas A&M University, Austin, 1982.
Beloborodov, A. P. "The Factor of Surprise," Military Herald, June, 1984.
Berezkin, A., "On Controlling the Actions of an Opponent," Military Thought, November, 1972.
Chervonobab, V., Col., "Principles of Military Art and Their Development", Military Thought, November, 1971.
Cruickshank, Douglas, N., Foreign Denial & Deception (D&D) Soviet Maskirovka: A Bibliography, Special Studies Division USAFINTEL 500-5 Foreign Denial & Deception, Nov. 1986.
Dailey, Brian D. and Patrick J. Parker eds. Soviet Strategic Deception, D.C. Heath, New Your, 1987.
Daniel, Donald C. Strategic Military Deception, Pergamon, New York, 1982.
Dick, C. J., Strategic and Operational Maskirovka in the Great Patriotic War, Soviet Studies Research Centre, RMA Sandhurst, England, Feb. 1988.
Dick, C. J., "Catching NATO Unawares- Soviet Army surprise and deception techniques," International Defense Review, January, 1986.
Dick, C.J. Soviet Views on Strategic and Operational Surprise and Deception,, Soviet Studies Research Centre, RMA Sandhurst, England, 1986.
Fugate, Bryan I. Operation Barbarossa, Presidio Press, Novato, Calif. 1984.
Gamaliy, V., "Engineer Preparation of the Terrain and Camouflage Are Elements of Tactics," Military Herald, April, 1980.
Glantz, David, Colonel, "Surprise and maskirovka in Contemporary War," Military Review, December, 1988.
Glantz, David, Colonel, Operational Intelligence in the Kursk Operation, Soviet Army Studies office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, August, 1988
Glantz, David, Colonel, Operational Intelligence in the Vistula-Oder Operation, Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, August 1988.
Glantz, David, Colonel, Soviet War Experience: A Deception Case Study,, Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, October 1988.
Glantz, David, Colonel, Soviet Operational Intelligence in the Kursk Operation July 1943, Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, August, 1988
Glantz, David, Colonel, The Fundamentals of Soviet Razvedka (Intelligence/Reconnaissance), Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, Jan. 1989.
Glantz, David, Colonel, Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War, Totowa, New Jersey, Frank Cass and Co, 1989.
Handel, Michael, Strategic and Operational Deception in the Second World War, Frank Cass, London, England, 1987.
Ionov, M., Maj Gen., "On Methods of Influencing an Opponent's Decision," Military Thought, December, 1971.
Ivanov, S. Capt., "Stratagem and Deceptive Actions", Military Herald, November, 1983.
Ivanov, S. Capt., "Camouflage," Military Herald, May, 1984.
Khvastunov, A., Sr.Lt. "The Problem of Camouflage," Military Herald, Sept. 1984.
Khvorost'yanov, Yu., Lt. Gen., "Combat Support," Military Herald, October, 1980.
Kiryan, M. M. Vnezapnost f nastupatelnykh operatsiyakh velikoy otechestvennoy voyny, (The Element of Surprise in Offensive Operations in the Great Patriotic War,), Moscow, Izdatelstvo "Nauky" 1986, Trans by JPRS, UMA-87-006-L.
Kiryan, M. M. Fronty nastupali: Po opytu Velikoy Otechestvennoy voyny, (The Fronts advanced: From the Experience of the Great Fatherland War), Nauka, Moscow, 1987 Trans, by JPRS.
Kurdek, Jerzy. "Maskirovka of the air defense system of a combined arms unit", Przeglad Weojsk Ladowych, June 1988, trans by Dr. Harry Orenstein, Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, 1990
Lefebvre, V. A. and Lefebvre, V. D. Reflexive Control: The Soviet Concept of Influencing an Adversary's Decisionmaking Process, Science Applications Inc. Englewood, Colo. 1984.
Lefebvre, V. A. Conflicting Structures (Konflixtuyushchiye struktury), Soviet Radio Publishing House, Moscow, 1973, trans JPRS, 61332, 1974.
Lefebvre, V. A. Algebra of Conflict, (Algebra Konflikta, Moscow, 1968, trans JPRS 52700, March 1971.
Matsulenko, V. Maj. Gen., "Operational Camouflage of Troops in the First and Second Periods of the War," Voyenno- istoricheskiy Zhurnal, January, 1972.
Matsulenko, V. Maj. Gen., "Operational Camouflage of Troops in the Third Period of the War," Voyenno- istoricheskiy Zhurnal, June, 1972.
Mel'nikov, P., Col.Gen., "Operational Camouflage, Concealment, And Deception," Moyenno istoricheskiy Zhurnal, April, 1982.
Meshcheryakov, V., Col Gen., "Strategic Disinformation in the Achievement of Surprise in the World War II Experience," Voyenno istoricheskiy Zhurnal, February, 1985.
Moynihan, Pamela R. Maskirovka: An integral component of Soviet Military Art, class paper for course 670, Defense Inteligence College, Washington DC, 1990.
Nepomnyashchiy, N., Maj., "Camouflage," Military Herald, May, 1984.
Orlov, N., Lt. Gen., "Methods of Assuring Secrecy of Preparations for Operations and Surprise in Troop Operations in the years of the War," Voyenno istoricheskiy Zhurnal, September, 1981.
Polyaenus, Stratagems of War, trans from Greek by R. Shepherd, Ares Publishers, Chicago, 1974.
Reznichenko, V. G. Tactika (Tactics), 3rd Ed. Moscow, 1987, trans by JPRS, UMA-88-008-L- I and II, June 1988.
Savoie, Thomas, A., "Are We Deceiving Ourselves?," Military Review, March, 1987.
Shishkin, N., Col., "Military Cunning and Deceptive Actions," Military Herald, August, 1979.
Simakov, Ye., Col., "Air Force Operational Camouflage, Concealment, and Deception: Directives and Orders of commanders of the Air Force and of Air Armies," Voyenno istoricheskiy Zhurnal, June, 1981.
Simakov, Ye., Col., "Operational Camouflage of Aviation," Sovetskoye Voyennoye Obozreniye, August, 1982.
Simchenikov, P. "Vnezapnost', Voyennyy Vestnik, 2 February 1985.
Smith, Charles, L., "Soviet maskirovka," Air Power Journal,
Sverdlov, F., Col., "Camouflage," Military Herald, May, 1984.
Vego, Milan, Recce-strike Complexes in Soviet Theory and Practice, Soviet Army Studies Office, Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas, 1990.
Voyennyy Entsiklopedicheskiy Slovar' (Military encyclopedic dictionary), Moscow, Voyenizdat, 1986.

9. Presentation Schedule: The course is eight hours long with the following individual lessons:
Lesson I - general principles 1 hr
Lesson II - measures used to implement 2 hr
Lesson III - operational considerations 1 hr
Lesson IV - organization 1 hr
Lesson V - exercise in planning 2 hrs

10. Annexes: See outlines of individual lessons.

Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

List of Viewgraphs - they are in the text

1. Which of the following is not an aim of maskirovka?
- conceal friendly troops from all types of enemy reconnaissance
- deceive the enemy about troops groupings, intentions, and activities
- disrupt enemy rear service operations
- hamper the enemy in his selection of objectives for destruction by fire and air strikes

2. Which of the following is not a principle of maskirovka?
- variety
- timeliness
- mass
- continuity

3. Which of the following is not a basic measure for maskirovka?
- Use of camouflage properties (characteristics) of the terrain, of darkness and other conditions of limited visibility (fog, rain, etc.)
- distribution of false documents
- signal security and deception, sound masking, blacking out, and radar camouflage
- secrecy in executing engineer work
- use of smoke screens

4. Which of the following is not a consideration in use of terrain for maskirovka?
- use of terrain is the simplest and most accessible method
- the most ideal terrain for concealment is broken and closed with vegetation and/ or man made structures. (protection against visual, radar, and heat reconnaissance.)
- terrain which is open, level, single tone, and devoid of vegetation and/ or man made structures is ideal with little further enhancement - - evergreen forests offer the most protection
- use of improvised natural vegetation e.g. freshly cut branches, leaves, grass, reeds, moss, dirt, snow, etc

5. Which of the following is not a purpose for using smoke screens?
- deceive the enemy
- protect against thermal radiation of nuclear bursts
- degrade the effectiveness of ATGM and laser guided munitions
- interfere with infrared, TV, might vision and radar reconnaissance instrument.
- protect troops from ultraviolet radiation

6. Which of the following is not a typical means for producing smoke:
- hand and rifle grenades, pots, drums, barrels, generators
- mines and aerial bombs
- forest fires
- arty and mortar shells
- motor vehicles, APC/BMP and tank dispensers

7. Which of the following is not a type of smoke screen?
- blinding
- camouflaging
- decoying
- illuminating

8. Which of the following is not a requirement for dummy equipment?
- right size and dimension
- must be employed in areas where placement of equipment is tactically sound
- areas where dummy equipment is placed must be devoid of actual or simulated activity characteristic of operational equipment
- decoys must be camouflaged well enough to conceal defects in construction but not well enough to prevent enemy detection

9. Which of the following is not a part of sound masking?
- concealing give-away noises with sound curtain
- deceiving the enemy by imitating the sound of motors in areas which are not occupied by the troops
- turning on the engines of vehicles in areas where troops are positioned
- observing acoustic discipline when issuing commands vocally and during conversations

10. Which of the following is not a part of light masking?
- extinguishing (dimming) illumination devices on vehicles when travelling at night
- using moonlight to conceal the movement of troops
- dimming the working quarters at the CPs
- positioning artillery behind shelters which conceal the glow of the flashes when shooting
- separating workshops which use illumination devices from troop deployment areas

11. Which of the following is not a consideration in radar camouflage?
- using mock-ups which imitate various forms of equipment
- executing artillery fire missions from temporary positions when necessary
- conducting artillery fire with extensive prior ranging
- using roving guns and tanks to create dummy fire positions

12. Which of the following is not a part of the commander's instructions on maskirovka?
- aim, tasks, and measures of maskirovka
- forces and means to be used
- place and deadlines for executing maskirovka
- the procedure for detecting enemy maskirovka
- individuals responsible for maskirovka measures

Mark the following statements as true or false:

1. Dazzle paint distorts the external appearance and noticeability of an object.

2. Signal deception does not require detection and elimination of typical reconnaissance tell-tale signs in the work of friendly radio equipment

3. It is believed that properly used, troops wearing coveralls can not be seen with the naked eye at a distance of more than 20 - 30 meters

4. The area covered by smoke should be 50 times greater than the covered object which should not be located in the center of the smoke-screen.

5. Paint is an effective means for camouflage

6. Reflexive control is a Soviet technique to influence an opponent's decision making.

7. Specialized camouflage sets are used to conceal specific objects (camouflage fringe, camouflage net over dug-in tank etc.)

8. Use of paint is based on the artistic talent available to the commander

9. MKT series covers take 5 - 10 hours to erect in daytime and up to twice that long at night.

10. Single color paint is effective in the jungle.

11. Decoys must be camouflaged well enough to conceal defects in construction but not well enough to prevent enemy detection

12. Blinding smoke screens are used against enemy observation posts and firing positions. It can decrease to effectiveness of fire about 10 times and can reduce the casualties up to 90%

13. Coveralls also reduce infrared detectibility

14. Types of covers include general purpose, horizontal camouflage, specialized sets, and vertical camouflage.

15. Signal security requires maintaining in time of necessity, complete radio silence

16. Dummy radio traffic is employed as part of signal security

17. Sound curtains are established by delivering artillery fire, by flying aircraft at low altitudes, by running powerful motors without mufflers and with other equipment

18. To enhance radar camouflage units and equipment should be positioned in shelters, covers and behind local objects which reflect radar beams

19. Corner reflectors are effective means for acoustic camouflage

20. Units should never travel along routes which are closed off to the enemy by local objects.

Instructor Notes:

Author: Jalali, Wardak, Sloan, McJoynt

Date: September 1990

Lesson I: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MASKIROVKA

1. General: This one hour lecture on Soviet principles and methods for planning operational maskirovka. It serves also as an introduction to the eight hour course.

2. Sub-lesson Introduction: This is one of a series of courses on various aspects of Soviet troop control methods, decision making, and planning. Maskirovka is one of a series of functional measures the Soviets call combat support. These are activities which, while not being combat itself, nevertheless are critical for success in combat. Some of these are organized and controlled by special staff officers specifically designated for this purpose. Maskirovka is a duty of the commander himself, but falls within the domain of the chief of the operations directorate as a routine and constant responsibility. In actuality it is conducted as an integrated part of the whole of operations planning, however, we have separated it out from the main two-day course on operations planning because of its importance in order to be able to devote some special attention to it.

3. Teacher Learning Objective: This lesson should give the students a basic knowledge of the Soviet definition and role of maskirovka

Task: Discuss the definition of maskirovka as a combat support measure.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The definition in the Soviet military encyclopedia is an accurate description of Soviet concepts for maskirovka. It contains all the elements that should be discussed later in the course.

Task: Discuss the differing content of maskirovka at strategic, operational, and tactical levels.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The instructor may start this discussion by posing the statement in the form of a question and ask the students to differentiate between strategic, operational, and tactical maskirovka. There are significant differences in aims, techniques, methods for organization, and control of maskirovka at the different levels.

Task: Discuss the principal methods the Soviets categorize as part of maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: This discussion will give the students a better understanding than they received from reading the Soviet definition of the term. They should see that by including these four methods the Soviet concept of maskirovka is more comprehensive that such US terms as camouflage. Moreover, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. When taken together in an integrated way the four methods for conducting maskirovka will achieve more comprehensive results than one of the methods employed alone.

Task: Discuss the four major aims of maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The instructor should link the discussion of the four aims with the variations in levels to ask the students to consider how the aims themselves differ in content and emphasis at the different level.

Task: Discuss the four guiding principles of maskirovka

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The guiding principles also have somewhat differing applications and importance at the three different levels. The instructor can illustrate this by presenting historical examples.

Task: Discuss the basic methods for maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The basic methods described here are applied at the troop unit level, hence they are in a sense inherently tactical. However they can be used to achieve several of the aims and in various contexts they might also serve operational and even strategic purposes. The list of basic methods does not include creation of sophisticated operational and strategic level deception plans, use of agents of influence, disinformation campaigns and other higher level techniques. The instructor should point this out and bring up a discussion of these and other such methods including political and economic.

4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.

5. Method of Instruction: Lecture and discussion.

6. Author's Intent:

7. Equipment/Materials: View graphs.

8. Annexes

Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

Homework requirements

List of Viewgraphs

Maskirovka is a combat support measure closely associated with combat action to support and facilitate the conduct of missions and to insure the achievement of aims. The command has to take a series of measures, not combat itself, but in support of combat. Some of the other combat support measures are reconnaissance and protection against enemy use of mass destruction weapons. etc. It is a complex of measures done with the aim of confusion of the enemy and taken in accordance with a plan structured in time, space, and mission. The confusion of the enemy should be especially strong with respect to the commander's plan; the structure of forces and means, especially the rocket and nuclear forces; on the level of forces, their location, capability, readiness, and quantity; and on the situation. The enemy should be confused also about the character of our operations. Maskirovka should prevent the enemy from discerning the operational character of our maneuver and the characteristics of our various forces and rear service installations.

Maskirovka measures are done in peacetime as well as in wartime, and in fact much of their ultimate effectiveness is dependent on their being carried out during the normal peacetime period. Their capability is to provide surprise. They increase the effectiveness of combat operations and the retention of combat effectiveness by the forces. They also raise the capability of ground, air and naval forces.

Definition:

The definition of Maskirovka given in the Soviet Military Encyclopedia is as follows:

Aggregate of measures to deceive the adversary regarding the presence and disposition of troops (forces), military vehicles and installations (targets), their status and condition, combat readiness and actions, as well as command authority plans; category of operational (combat) support. Camouflage, concealment and deception help achieve the element or surprise in the actions of troops (forces), help maintain their combat readiness and increase survivability. Subdivided, by scale of employment and nature of missions, into strategic, operational, and tactical (voyskovaya). It can be, depending on the means of reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering against which it is directed, hydroacoustic masking, noise reduction and sound masking (acoustic), magnetometric, opto-electronic, radiation, radar, radio and electronic, thermal, etc. The greatest effect is achieved with simultaneous employment of camouflage, concealment, and deception against all hostile reconnaissance and intelligence-gathering assets. Conducted continuously in all types of troop (forces) military operations. Modes of camouflage, concealment and deception: secrecy and concealment, feints and decoy (diversionary) actions, simulation, deception and dissemination of false information.

Strategic camouflage, concealment and deception (strategicheskaya maskirovka) is carried out on the decision of the supreme command authority and encompasses an aggregate of measures to keep secret preparations for a strategic operation or campaign, as well as measures to confuse the enemy regarding military force grouping, the state and intentions of military forces. Planned and organized by the general staff.

Operational camouflage, concealment and deception (operativnaya maskirovka) is accomplished by means of carrying out feints and decoy (diversionary) actions, simulating concentrations and deployment of troops, vehicles and military installations, deception and dissemination of false information on the state of one's troops and the character of forthcoming actions during preparation for and conduct of operations. Planned and organized by front (military district, fleet) headquarters on the basis of an operation plan.

Tactical camouflage, concealment and deception (takticheskaya voyskovaya maskirovka)is accomplished by concealing from the enemy movement and position of friendly troops (forces), artillery and missile/rocket forces firing (launcher) positions, location of command and control facilities and other important installations, utilizing the concealment properties of the terrain, conditions of reduced visibility, and means of camouflage, concealment and masking, as well as construction of dummy positions and areas. Carried out on the decision of combined unit (unit, subunit) commanders by all armed forces personnel without specific instructions.

As shown in this definition, Maskirovka has three levels corresponding to the levels of combat actions; strategic, operational, and tactical as classified by character, scale, and missions.

Strategic maskirovka:

This is conducted on the basis of the decision of the high command or the general staff or the command in a TVD. Strategic maskirovka has the following elements. These are done to support secrecy concentrated on strategic missions. Strategic maskirovka is focused on preserving the secrecy of preparations for war and military for operations and the strategic movements conducted during preparatory periods. It also is used to deceive the enemy on the number and separate actions of the armed forces and the concept of operations and intentions. Strategic maskirovka is conducted by the forces and means of the high command and the forces and means participating in strategic operations. These are planned by the general staff and the TVD command.

Operational maskirovka

This is conducted on the basis of the decision of the front commander or commander of the naval fleet. If an army operates on a separate direction, then the decision of the army commander can be the basis for maskirovka plans.

Operational maskirovka has the basic aim of preserving secrecy of preparations for operations. In normal conditions operational maskirovka is conducted on the basis of the front commanders` decision. An army only fulfills missions that are specified in the front plan. The missions are designated for the army to fulfill. In some unusual situations the army may be told to expand the measures in accordance with the front plan. In other words the army may work out implementing measures, but only in unusual situations, when it is specifically ordered to develop such measures. In the usual plan the missions of the army are spelled and on the basis of these missions the army fulfills its own functions. If the army on its own were to conduct maskirovka measures, these would not be fully effective and the enemy would see through the situation.

On the other hand the effectiveness of strategic maskirovka is not tied so closely with the front and visa versa, the operational maskirovka being done by the front is not tied so directly into the TVD plans. So the front has more independence in the development of maskirovka. But army has to be coordinated within the front plan. One principle is that it is not necessary to reveal the essence of the maskirovka in order to accomplish it. In other words the actors are just ordered to do as told in this situation, without questioning why. Thus, the tactical commander will most likely not even know his unit activities are conceived of by the operational level as part of an operational maskirovka.

Tactical maskirovka

This is the system of activities conducted by units, sub-units, formations, and independent targets to have maintain secrecy prior to movement as well as their own strength (quantity), location of positions, and intentions. At the tactical level it makes use of the maskirovka capabilities of local conditions of the weather, light, and locations (terrain). It also employs the standard artificial techniques such as wearing camouflage clothing or exercising sound discipline. Use of tactical maskirovka for these purposes is a standard operating procedure for all tactical commanders for the preservation of their own troops. It is not part of or really have anything to do with a larger operational level plan, nor does it have to be ordered specifically by an operational commander.

General principles and means of maskirovka as a combat support measure

There are four principal methods for maskirovka. These are secrecy, demonstrations, imitation, and disinformation. All actions are classified under one of these categories.

Secrecy and imitation are more predominant at the tactical level and demonstrative action and disinformation are more used at the operational and strategic levels. Demonstrative action means to display false movements or false actions for the enemy to observe. To be believable these must be mixed with real activities. Imitation is the use of dummies and other means for showing false targets. Secrecy is preservation of information about the real situation and disinformation is spreading false ideas by whatever means. Since the enemy has many different technical means for reconnaissance, such as optical, electric, sound, hydro, radar, radio, heat, radiation, electro-magnetic, as well as human sources, it is essential to employ a full variety of deception means to counter each and every one of these methods.

Aims of maskirovka

Maskirovka has four major aims: to conceal, to deceive, to hamper, and to insure security.

To conceal is a counter reconnaissance action to protect the forces against the enemy's reconnaissance effort.

As a measure to deceive the enemy, maskirovka is an active action to influence the enemy. To do this you have to do something. To conceal you have to do both active and passive measures.

To hamper the enemy's selection of targets is to confuse the enemy on what are the important targets. The idea is to hamper his selection of main targets at which to fire and to confuse him on where the main grouping of forces is, where is main targets will be, etc.

Maskirovka insures undetected preparation for war itself as well as for offensive action. At the highest levels it is the country`s preparation for war that is being concealed, while at lower levels it is preparation for a particular operation that is concealed.

Guiding principles

Given the aims of maskirovka, there are a series of guidelines to be followed to achieve the aims. The four guiding principles are: variety, timeliness, continuity, and persuasiveness.

The idea is that a stereotyped kind of maskirovka is dangerous, because once enemy knows the pattern it will know that some sort of effort is being conducted. Therefor maskirovka must be varied and imaginative and not standard. It must make use of different measures to convince the enemy from different directions. Timeliness at the tactical level is a matter of hours, while at the strategic level it may be years. The point is that part of the skill in accomplishing maskirovka is in knowing at what time you should do what. If you do something before the appropriate time, it may reveal things worse than doing nothing. To convince the enemy that the troops are moving at a certain direction it is necessary to do things at right time so the enemy will think what it sees is in the right context. When troops deploy to a location and the enemy detects that where they are seems to be part of a logical larger pattern he may believe his perception is valid. But if it is an isolated action he may not be fooled.

Continuity means that to be effective maskirovka must continue and activities must be conducted constantly with no gaps. The type of actions must look real and be convincing. If you put dummy guns in the open without camouflage and expect the enemy to take them as real you will likely fail. They will know it is a model and see though it. You have to put also some camouflage and engineer work conducted in a way to give the enemy an impression to convince it real. Once enemy sees it is not real it will compromise all maskirovka measures.

Basic methods for maskirovka

The types of methods employed depend on the type of military operation being subjected to maskirovka. Forces on the offensive will require different techniques than those on the defensive. Marches will be different from attacks or concentrations in assembly areas. The following measures are deemed significant in relation to offensive operations:

- secret bringing of the forces and means to full mobilization;
- secret movement of forces and means into the initial and final concentration and assembly (FUP) areas;
- secret regrouping of the air army on operational airfields;
- conduct of various maskirovka methods to conceal the concept of the operation as a whole;
- concealed deployment of command posts, first echelons, second echelons and other installations into secret places;
- creation of false military elements, including installations and large and small units;
- imitation methods for depicting false assembly areas, artillery firing positions, rocket launch areas, and especially false airfields, etc.
- if the enemy does expect an impending attack, then concealment of the axis of the real main attack and depiction of a false attack axis;
- use of secret signal systems and communication systems that are more difficult to compromise, such as telephone and couriers or, if necessary, UHF radio.
- conduct of local, tactical maskirovka measures by all types of units, with or without professional engineer assistance.

Combat support measure

Definition

Three levels of maskirovka
- strategic
- operational
- tactical

General principles and means

Four principal methods
- secrecy
- demonstrations
- imitation
-disinformation

Four major aims
- concealment
- deception
- hampering
- security

Four guiding principles
- variety
- timeliness
- continuity
- persuasiveness

Basic methods for maskirovka

VG1 - Outline for course
VG2 - Outline for lesson I
VG3 - Levels for maskirovka
VG4 - Principal methods
VG5 - Principal aims
VG6 - Guiding principles
VG7 - Important requirements
VG8 - Basic measures

OUTLINE FOR COURSE

LESSON I - GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MASKIROVKA

LESSON II - MEASURES USED IN IMPLEMENTING MASKIROVKA.

LESSON III - OPERATIONAL MASKIROVKA

LESSON IV - ORGANIZATION OF MASKIROVKA

LESSON V - EXERCISE IN PLANNING

Maskirovka as combat support measure

Definition

Three levels of maskirovka
- strategic
- operational
- tactical

General principles and means

Four principal methods
- secrecy
- demonstrations
- imitation
- disinformation

Four major aims
- concealment
- deception
- deception
- security

Four guiding principles
- variety
- timeliness
- continuity
- persuasiveness

tactical

operational

strategic

AIM:

To conceal friendly troops from all types of enemy reconnaissance

To deceive the enemy about troops groupings, intentions, and activities

To hamper the enemy in his selection of objectives for destruction by fire and air strikes

Maskirovka also ensures undetected preparation and sudden delivery of attack by friendly troops.

1 - variety
2 - timeliness
3 - continuity
4- persuasiveness

Instructor Notes:
Author: Jalali, Wardak, Sloan, McJoynt
Date: September 1990

LESSON II: MEASURES USED IN IMPLEMENTING MASKIROVKA.

1. General: This two hour lecture describes the various specific tactical and technical measures and techniques used to implement maskirovka ad the level of individual targets and units.

2. Sub-lesson Introduction: In this lesson the instructor should describe some of the standard methods and means used to implement maskirovka in the field. The treatment is general, focusing on the concepts for use of these techniques and technical means. The overall theme can be that technology is moving just as fast to provide fresh and more sophisticated devices to create maskirovka as it is to develop new reconnaissance and detection capabilities. The deployment of multi-source sensors for reconnaissance means that concealment techniques must also attempt to defeat multi-sources simultaneously.

3. Teacher Learning Objective: To give the students a general appreciation of the rapid development of technical tools and techniques available to the maskirovka planner. The lesson should also be a time for the instructor to alert the students to the need for counter-maskirovka planning as well.

Task: Discuss the use of terrain to provide for or enhance maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: Use of terrain is the major technique at the tactical level. At the operational level other considerations frequently take precedence. The instructor should develop student discussion on this issue. Examples from the National Training Center and from experience in VietNam may be appropriate.

Task: Discuss the use of various paints and painting methods to create maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The technical specifications of the many paints are beyond the scope of this course. Nevertheless, it is important to discuss the fact that paint is effectively used against observation in more than the human visual light spectrum. The main point is to focus on the operational implications of the availability of paint as a tool to achieve maskirovka.

Task: Discuss the use of special clothing as a means for camouflage.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The current deployment into the desert with its attendant complete change of clothing issue is a convenient class discussion point. The instructor may also show pictures of Soviet ski troops and others wearing various types of camouflage clothing. One interesting point is the modern requirement for clothing (such as gloves) that protects against detection by thermal detection devices.

Task: Discuss the use of various building materials to create maskirovka

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: Soviet use of building material is extensive. Many photographs of fortifications enhanced by camouflage materials are available. There might be good sources now for illustrations from the Middle East as well.

Task: Discuss the use of smoke to create maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: This is certainly one of the best known as well as most widely used techniques. The instructor should discuss the various uses and types of smoke screens. He might recount some of the massive smoke screens employed by the Soviets in WWII. As with paint, it is important to point out that smokes are developed to conceal objects from detection by other than direct visual observation. They are particularly used to defeat laser designators and terminal homing target seeking sensors.

Task: Discuss the use of dummy positions and dummies as part of maskirovka efforts.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: This is a very widely used tool. The Soviet norm for airfield construction in the front area is to create at least 30% dummy air fields (a truly massive effort). Dummy positions are also prepared on a wide scale for armies and fronts on the defensive. When on the offensive they are used more in the effort to deceive the opponent on the location of massing for the main attack.

Task: Discuss the use of signal, sound, light, radar and other technical means for creating maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: These are all very technical subjects when it comes to discussing exactly how they are made most effective. Moreover, the specifics of implementation change rapidly with the development of new models of equipment. The instructor should focus on the operational implications, that is the purposes sought by the commander, and the level of effort and resources that must be planned to achieve anything significant in this field.

Task: Discuss the means for concealment of movement that may be used as part of a maskirovka plan.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: This is one of the very most critical issues for the Soviet planner. concealment of movement is a prime measure associated with deceiving the enemy as to the location of the axis of main attack and time of start of combat. The instructor may generate discussion on the effectiveness of various means to achieve this in the face of modern overhead reconnaissance means such as AWACS and SLAR.

4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.

5. Method of Instruction: Lecture and discussion.

6. Author's Intent: The objective is to give the students sufficient understanding of the state of the art to enable them to think positively about the chances for successful maskirovka when they are planning operations in an OPFOR headquarters. They do not need to know the technical specifications for the many sophisticated devices and available to implement their plans. They do need to know that simple and stereotyped approaches will not suffice. But also they must be encouraged to make the extra effort to incorporate maskirovka as a desired component into their plans from the outset. This will be discussed in other lessons, but in this one we give them a look at the technical tools so they will realize that their efforts will be worth while. Also this discussion of the capabilities of such technical tools should alert them to the use of maskirovka by their opponent and to their need to develop counter-maskirovka plans as well.

7. Equipment/Materials: Viewgraphs.

8. Homework: None.

9. Annexes:

Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

List of Viewgraphs

Basic measures

While following the guidelines discussed in the previous lesson, there are a number of basic measures which have proven effective for achieving the aims of maskirovka. They include the following:

Terrain:

Use of terrain properties to achieve dispersed and undetected positioning is a traditional camouflage measure. This is the simplest and oldest way of maskirovka. It is not always possible because sometimes the troops are in open areas without much natural cover and concealment. If possible, however, the first thing the troops do is to use the terrain for whatever value it can provide, and only then, if it is not possible to succeed with only natural means, use artificial means. This is first method.

Sometimes the operational requirements will be in conflict with the maskirovka requirements. Sometimes the area best for cover is not on the main axis of attack. The principle is that maskirovka is a measure to support combat, so maskirovka is always subject to the requirements of operational planing. You can't change the plan for the sake of maskirovka. When the commander makes his decision the characteristics of terrain are evaluated as part of the estimate of the situation and, if the terrain is so bad that it can influence the conduct of the operation, it must be taken in consideration. But once the plan is taken it should not be changed for the sake of maskirovka. Some local conditions, such as darkness and bad weather, can be used effectively at the tactical level, but not as easily at the operational level. The local use of terrain and weather is fine but hard to use as a whole for the army and front at operational level. Sometimes maskirovka is only effective at the tactical level, but not at the operational level. Sometimes you know where an enemy division is, even if you don't know where the regiments are. On the other hand, at the operational level actions may be conducted by forces to deceive the enemy. A complex action may be conducted over a period of time to deceive, however at the tactical level time is short and space limited.

Dispersion:

One other measure associated with terrain is dispersion. Dispersion is an old method of maskirovka. In addition to the protection it gives directly, it provides more capability and possibilities to use the terrain for maskirovka purposes. If the forces are dispersed in an area of 60 sq km, they will have a certain capability for concealment, but if they are in an area of 200 sq km area, then the capability is multiplied. The more dispersed the troops are the more capability they have to use the camouflage characteristics of the terrain.

The more one is able to use the natural capabilities of the terrain the more one can reduce the time needed for artificial engineer preparation of camouflage and concealment. If you then don't have to do so much engineer work when the terrain is good, you can complicate the enemy's reconnaissance requirements. Thus a wider area makes reconnaissance more difficult for the enemy. In addition of course when the forces are in a smaller area the enemy can concentrate his reconnaissance more effectively.

When we have terrain with characteristics that provide cover and concealment we use it, but if this is not possible then artificial means must be used. Perhaps there is no natural cover or not enough. Therefore a number of artificial means are developed to help when natural characteristics are insufficient. Some of these are organic to troops and some are improvised.

Paint:

Paint is a common artificial means. It is for use on combat and other vehicles and on other items like airfields and buildings etc. Usually the vehicles are painted in peacetime with colors depending on expected area of operation. The painting will use different colors. If the equipment is used in areas other than the areas where they were intended to be used, the command must change the color. Stationary objects are normally not painted in peacetime. If they were painted in peacetime it would be a waste of resources. They only paint them when war comes. The most common colors in use are brown and green, depending on the type of terrain. The percentage mixture of the different colors varies. The paint is used to merge the object into the background of terrain.

Camouflage clothing:

Another common artificial means is the use of camouflage type clothing. This includes overalls and white winter suits for ski troops etc. In recent times the infrared signature associated with clothing has become a more important consideration.

Building materials:

Other artificial means include building materials for making covers. These can be put together out a number of separate prefabricated cover pieces to fit the requirements of the position. The normal time required to use these is 5 to 10 minutes. They can be assembled easily. In addition to horizontal installation to cover a target they can be used in the vertical position to camouflage something from ground observation. For example a communication trench can be cut in different parts so the enemy can't see all of it. The continuity of the trench is broken by the cover of parts of it with the screens. By this way they protect it from ground observation. If a communication trench is going to the depth of the position it can be cut by the use of screens. They change the shape and conceal its dimension. The screens are put on very simple frames that can be disassembled and moved. The screen is made of cloth and can be put up anywhere.

In some cases you can use local material like bushes with the screens to make it more similar to the ground. Road screens are placed by the side of road in exposed areas and where the roads are passing over a hill and in areas not covered by vegetation.

Camouflage fences are an individual means used for soldiers. The most common is a frame with different covers and branches. The soldiers can open it and put it on ground to protect themselves. It looks like a fan.

A sloping cover is to cover objects located beside a cliff or building. It makes a lean to to cover the vehicles etc right next to the building.

A distorting camouflage does not have standard size. It comes in specialized sets for specific objects and individuals. These can include special covers for machine guns or artillery pieces prepared ahead of time.

Use of smoke:

Smoke is one of the very effective means used throughout the ages for the purpose of blinding, concealing, and deceiving. Smoke also has other properties, such as protection against thermal radiation of a nuclear burst. The radiation can't penetrate. Smoke will also degrade munitions that depend on guidance. The use of smoke screens is only effective when they are used at the proper place and time when the wind direction is planned for. The distance should be such that smoke should not interfere with normal action of own troops. The smoke should not be so limited that instead of covering a target it makes it more distinct. The time of use should be at the time when some important action is to be conducted or to deceive the enemy about movement. For example, if the movement of the second-echelon is planned, you can use smoke in the wrong place to make the enemy think the unit is somewhere else. Or when second-echelon is moving, it can be used when the troops move out of a covered area into the open. The smoke must be placed such that when it is used it should not be only in front of the troops or they will move out of it too soon. If it is done right, it is very effective against enemy and will reduce casualties. The Soviets have estimates on number of casualties that can be reduced by use of various types of smoke screens.

Kinds of smoke producing means:

Smoke generators are attached to vehicles so they can create smoke screens themselves without waiting for engineers to come and do it. It is more expedient and easier method.

There are three types of smoke screens classified by purpose; for blinding, camouflaging, and decoying.

For blinding use the smoke against enemy observation on the target area. If smoke is used to protect yourself, use it near yourself. Blinding is more effective. By blinding the enemy observation post you don't have to cover your own troops. But you must be sure you are blinding all observation posts. Smoke screens can be used at night too, when enemy uses illumination. When the enemy is using ATGMs, it is best to blind them. However, if there are many of them, then you have to cover own forces.

When you cover your own troops, activities, and positions, the area covered must be at least 5 times greater in size than the unit covered. This norm refers to small units and individual targets. To cover a company that is occupying 500 meters the screen, if 5 times, larger would be 2500 meters. This is usually not possible. The smoke can be used to cover individual tank or gun positions but not a whole unit. When used be sure the target is not in the center of the smoke.

Deceptive smoke is used just to make the enemy think an attack is in different place. For instance, it is used in river crossing to confuse the enemy about real area for river crossing. Half the smoke would be in areas where no crossing was taking place.

Smoke grenades from tank are used purely as defense and to cover the tank while moving. If it is used with a whole company or platoon it would create a screen, but for individual tanks it is just to cover the tank.

Smoke can be delivered by helicopter and aircraft. From helicopter they can put smoke pots on ground quickly and lay 10 km rapidly. From fixed wing airplane smoke is used with dispenser container that explodes on impact. When you want to use a very thick screen along terrain in a wider area, then the air force can do it quickly. However that depends on the availability of airplanes.

Close to the front lines there are other more effective methods. Air delivered smoke can be at greater depth more easily or on landing areas. It is harder for air to concentrate smoke in a small area. Air delivered smoke can by used to blind direct firing weapons, gun positions and artillery observation posts.

You can use smoke mines in an ambush and raid for reconnaissance units. In the depth of your own area it is more effective to use smoke generators by engineers rather than shells.

Dummy positions and actions etc:

To use dummy actions there are certain things to consider. Some important points are given in the view graph. You have to do it in a way to deceive the enemy and not yourself.

Dummy actions must be used in areas where it is tactically sound. If the firing position is not in range, it won't make sense. If you put 122 mm right on FEBA it is also not right. The regiment has a frontage of 5 km. In that area the RAG will be in one area but there are many other areas at same depth that you could put a model of the guns to show that the position is in a different area. The dummies must be the right size and dimension. For instance, to show that there is a T-54 tank you have to use the right size model. However for purposes of deceiving aerial reconnaissance the height of the model can be reduced by 30% and still be effective.

The decoy must be also camouflaged to conceal the defects in construction, but not well enough to really hide it. You must also conduct actions from time to time. A unit will occupy the area and show activity and make noise and produce signal communications. They can change the pattern of tracks the next day.

Engineer units are responsible for providing materials that are assembled in the area. They are prefabricated in kits. At lower echelon combat engineer units are used and at higher echelon the maskirovka battalion is used.

Soviets used smoke in Afghanistan to cover attack and it sometimes was like tear gas too. They used it from helicopters. The Afghans used camouflage and decoys very well too.

Signal security:

The principles are listed in the view graph. Signal security is implemented to deceive the enemy and cover own communications. To cover signal from the enemy, use radio silence this is the best way newly arrived units can be covered. This can cover buildup of forces. Reduce radio use in area of main attack and increase it in other areas. Other measures are more important than radio silence. Active measures are more effective than passive measures. With active measures conduct continuous action to influence the enemy. It is better in addition to radio silence. Along with heavy activity in the supporting area radio deception can fool the enemy when combined with other measures. The enemy can detect a unit from the type of communication since it is different for different units or operators. One task is to seek for these kinds of signs in your own forces to eliminate them. Dummy traffic ia usually temporary for an operation. Soviets have norms for sending messages depending on how long they were to reduce time on air.

Radio communication maskirovka is based on reduction of information and reduced time on air. The Soviets use simple ciphers and codes and simple map codes. They have tables on one side letters and other numbers table contains common sentences and phrases. can change number of a square also for coordinates on maps. The numbers on maps are reversed to increase to the south instead of the north or they change the number of one part of a grid or change the vertical measured from Greenwich to some other place. Instead of going west to east they go east to west, or make other changes on the map grid often.

The enemy will be using electronic means for detection effective when other side is using radio and in the reverse. Therefor one can disinform the enemy by using radios in various ways to conceal real activities, as well as to deceive. One can use specific types of radios at different operational levels and short transmission rates or use short wave radios at high level for long distance transmissions. One can use different types of antennas that will increase the radio's range in one direction but not another. At the tactical level it is better to use short range radios.

Hydroacoustic reconnaissance is conducted over water surfaces so masking noise is used to cover submarine etc. One can use different types of material to degrade sonar systems. And it is possible to have dummy targets too.

Anti-heat masking is employed against infra-red detection systems. If one has a tank with a hot engine, even covered by foliage, infrared reconnaissance will detect it. To conceal it all unnecessary use of the engines must be avoided or it may be possible to cool down the surfaces with water etc.

Sound masking:

Some important principles are given in the view graph. Sound concealment is especially important and practiced at the tactical level. Sound masking is important to cover and conceal all sounds that represent some specific activity. Especially on the offensive, action will come from direct contact with the enemy. A sound curtain is a camouflage screen used to cover one noise by another. One can make a louder and heavier noise depending on the duration of sound. One method is to use artillery fire or low flying aircraft to cover the sound of moving vehicles.

Light masking:

The important points are shown in the view graph.

An ancient "stratagem" has been to use campfires in dummy areas to conceal the movement of troops or use other light sources to make dummy positions look real. Now lasers can be used to blind optical reconnaissance instruments.

Radar camouflage:

The main points are shown in the view graph.

Concealment of movement:

One important area that should be concealed is movement of troops. Movement is critical because it is conducted in columns and columns are long and can be detected by various reconnaissance means. In offensive operations a large part of the action is movements, which if known will reveal the axis of concentration for the main attack. Therefor in offensives covering movement is one of the main objectives. To conceal movement there are number of basic actions typically taken. When driving along roads the units use covered routes and bypass cities. Movement is conducted at night to reduce the ease of visual observation. Moving forces use VHF radios of the traffic control organization rather than their own. In addition one can use dummy movement. Deceptive movement is conducted using a mixture of dummy and real equipment. The dummy is attached to a vehicle by cable to pull it. Then during the night it can be disassembled and moved to another direction and used there. Sometimes dummies are pushed by personnel or used with real troops and moved back and forth to simulate a larger force. In ancient times Hannibal tied brush to the tails of oxen and placed torches on their horns to simulate the movement of large bodies of troops.

Basic measures used to implement maskirovka

- terrain
- dispersion
- paint
- special clothing
- building materials
- smoke
- dummy positions
- signal security
- sound masking
- light masking
- radar camouflage
- concealment of movement

- VG1 - Outline of lesson II
- VG2 - Basic measures
- VG3 - Use of terrain
- VG4 - Dispersion provides
- VG5 - Use of organic and improvised means
- VG6 - Use of organic and improvised means II
- VG7 - Artificial camouflage material
- VG8 - Specialized camouflage sets
- VG9 - Use of smoke screens
- VG10 - Smoke producing means
- VG11 - Types of smoke screens
- VG12 - Requirements for the use of dummy equipment
- VG13 - Signal security and deception
- VG14 - Sound masking
- VG15 - Light masking
- VG16 - Radar camouflage
- VG17 - Concealment of movement

Basic measures used to implement maskirovka

- terrain

- dispersion

- paint

- special clothing

- building materials

- smoke

- dummy positions

- signal security

- sound masking

- light masking

- radar camouflage

- concealment of movement

- dispersed and undetected positioning and movement of the troops

- use of camouflage properties (characteristics) of the terrain, of darkness and other conditions of limited visibility (fog, rain, etc.)

- use of organic and improvised means of concealment and painting of equipment to match the color of the terrain

- signal security and deception, sound masking, blacking out, and radar camouflage

- engineer preparation of dummy locations of the troops, of dummy objectives and conducting dummy movements and deception measures (disinformation)

- secrecy in executing engineer work

- use of smoke screens

- driving the columns along roads in close country

- bypassing large population centers, road junctions, and other visible ground marks

- moving vehicles at night with extinguished or dimmed illumination devices

- advance engineer preparation of artificial screens over open sections of roads which can be seen from the enemy side

- radio silence or restriction of radio communication in moving columns

- dispersion of columns along the front and in the depth

- use of terrain is the simplest and most accessible method

- natural screens include unevenness of the relief (ravines, gorges, etc), vegetation, structures, buildings, fences, caves, tunnels, etc.

- the most ideal terrain for concealment is broken and closed with vegetation and/ or man made structures. (protection against visual, radar, and heat reconnaissance.)

- terrain which is open, level, single tone, and devoid of vegetation and/ or man made structures requires artificial "spotting" of the surface of the ground.

- evergreen forests offer the most protection

- use of improvised natural vegetation e.g. freshly cut branches, leaves, grass, reeds, moss, dirt, snow, etc

- use of adverse weather and darkness in all terrain

best use of camouflage characteristics of the terrain and the concealed troops positions

reduction of time and resource expenditure on engineer preparation

complicates enemy reconnaissance

PAINT:

1. An effective means for camouflage

- combat and transport vehicles, artillery and aircraft

- stationary objects such as buildings, aircraft, parking aprons, hardstands, and taxiways

2 Use of paint is based on background of surrounding terrain

- single color for single tone (prairie, snow)

- multicolor for varying background

3 Most common paints

- protective: single color making equipment less noticeable against a uniform background

- dazzle (distorting) paint: distorts the external appearance and noticeability of an object. It is usually used for painting mobile equipment operating in terrain with a mottled background (green, dark brown or black and sandy earth). It could be 50% green, 25% brown, 25% sandy earth in summer, in autumn 30 - 50% green covered with yellow; winter dazzle paint usually consists of white (75%) and dark green or dark brown (25%)

CLOTHING

Camouflage overalls (snipers, engineers, forward observers, reconnaissance with usually brown, green, grey-green, or grey-yellow spots and work over the regular uniform. They may have hoods and face masks.

It is believed that properly used, troops wearing coveralls can not be seen with the naked eye at a distance of more than 20 - 30 meters

Coveralls also reduce infrared detectibility

In winter white suits consisting of a jacket with hood, trousers, gloves, and a white strap for covering individual weapons are issued

Covers

- MKT series 12 x 18 meter consists of 12 standard 3 x 6 meter pieces used for tanks, APC , BMP and other vehicles. Takes 5 - 10 hours to erect in daytime and up to twice that long at night.

Types of covers

1 - General purpose

- flat (for objects which do not rise above the ground)

- convex (for objects above the ground)

- concave (for objects located in ravines and depressions

2 - Horizontal camouflage covers: used parallel to the ground open at the sides

3 - Vertical camouflage

- a - trench screens: established in segments of 2 - 3 meters or more in length and 50 - 70 cm in height

- b - over road camouflage: placed at sufficient height over the road (6 - 7 meters)

- c - roadside camouflage: to conceal the movement of troops from lateral observation, screens are 3 - 4 m or more in height

- d - camouflage fences: used to conceal equipment, troops and engineer work from enemy ground observation. They consist of nets or field expedient frameworks on which branches, grass, straw or nets are attached.

- e - individual camouflage: blinds and screens constructed by soldiers in the field using locally available materials or collapsible fan shaped wire frames covered with netting (0.6 x 0.9 m) It resembles a bush and conceals a prone rifleman

- f - sloping camouflage: lower edge touches the ground forming an angle of 30 - 60 degrees. The upper edge is usually attached to the tree, brush, fence or building.

- g - distorting camouflage: to distort characteristics outlines, shapes, and shadows and the nature or purpose of certain objects, structures or facilities

4. Specialized camouflage sets: to conceal specific objects

5. Canvas covers

6. Concealment of side turret numbers

To conceal specific objects (camouflage fringe, camouflage net over dug-in tank etc.)

Canvas Covers

Used to cover vehicles and weapons particularly when they are stored, housed in garrison or being transported by rail

Pieces to conceal side/turret numbers

Used to conceal turret or side numbers of vehicles to avoid disclosure of unit numbers

Purpose

1. Blind enemy observation

2. Conceal own movements and targets

3. Deceive the enemy

4. Protection against thermal radiation of nuclear bursts

5. Degrading the effectiveness of ATGM and laser guided munitions

6. Interfering with infrared, TV, might vision and radar reconnaissance instrument.

hand and rifle grenades, pots, drums, barrels, generators

mines and aerial bombs

arty and mortar shells

aircraft dispensers

motor vehicles, APC/BMP and tank dispensers

1. Blinding

- Used against enemy observation posts and firing positions. It can decrease to effectiveness of fire about 10 times and can reduce the casualties up to 90%

2. Camouflaging

- Used to conceal the location, movement and intentions of friendly troops from ground and aerial observation. The area covered by smoke should be 5 times greater than the covered object which should not be located in the center of the smoke-screen. Effectiveness of enemy fire delivered on smoke-screen targets is reduced four times and losses among tank and infantry units can be cut by 60-80%.

3. Decoying (deceptive) smoke

- Used in areas not occupied by friendly troops in order to deceive the enemy about the actual location, movement and intentions of friendly forces

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE USE
OF DUMMY EQUIPMENT

1. Must be employed in areas where placement of equipment is tactically sound

2. Right size and dimension

3. Decoys must be camouflaged well enough to conceal defects in construction but not well enough to prevent enemy detection

4. Areas where dummy equipment is placed must be animated by actual or simulated activity characteristic of operational equipment

Maintaining in time of necessity, complete radio silence

Detection and elimination of typical reconnaissance tell-tale signs in the work of friendly radio equipment

Dummy radio traffic in certain areas, including the forward areas of units and large units positions

Observance of strict discipline in the work of radio communications

Restriction of the working time of friendly radio equipment and the power of its transmission

Concealing give-away noises with sound curtain.

Deceiving the enemy by imitating the sound of motors in areas which are not occupied by the troops

Forbidding engines of vehicles to be turned on unnecessarily in areas where troops are positioned

Observing acoustic discipline when issuing commands vocally and during conversations

Establishing sound curtains by delivering artillery fire, by flying aircraft at low altitudes, by running powerful motors without mufflers and with other equipment

Extinguishing (dimming) illumination devices on vehicles when travelling at night

Dimming the working quarters at the CPs

Positioning artillery behind shelters which conceal the glow of the flashes when shooting

Forbidding fires to be lit in areas where troops are deployed

Separating workshops which use illumination devices from troops deployment areas

Positioning of units and equipment in shelters, covers and behind local objects which reflect radar beams

Travelling along routes which are closed off to the enemy by local objects

Using corner reflectors for camouflage

Constructing overhead camouflage and a vertical camouflage screen along the roadside out of local materials (straw, grass, trees)

Using mock-ups which imitate various forms of equipment

Preparing data for artillery fire without ranging

Executing artillery fire missions from temporary positions when necessary

Using roving guns and tanks to create dummy fire positions

Instructor Notes:
Author: Jalali, Wardak, Sloan, McJoynt
Date: September 1990

LESSON III: OPERATIONAL MASKIROVKA

1. General: This one hour lecture describes the theory of creating maskirovka at the operational level. It is hoped that the students will gain some insight into the Soviet mind set on this subject that will enable them to employ at least basic Soviet elements of maskirovka in their role as officers in an OPFOR headquarters.

2. Sublesson Introduction: Since there is little Soviet literature discussing current concepts for maskirovka at the operational level, we must refer to the extensive literature on its use during World War II. Another source of information at least by inference is the considerable recent literature on the growing importance of the "reconnaissance strike complex" and other types of "smart weapons" and futuristic battlefield weaponry. A special Soviet concept that has its main effect at operational and strategic levels is "reflexive control". Thanks to the immigration to the US of one of its principal early developers, we now have a considerable body of knowledge on this unique technique.

3. Teacher Learning Objective: To enhance the students ability to "think red" in the maskirovka context while making Soviet type decisions and formulating the resulting plans.

Task: Discuss the historical trends in maskirovka as seen in Soviet literature on this subject.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: If possible the students should have read some current literature on this subject and be able to enter into general discussion.



Task: Discuss Soviet World War II experience in the employment of maskirovka at the operational level.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: This can be as far ranging a discussion as the teacher desires. It is hoped that the students will have some background through reading about the Eastern Front in WWII. Extensive references are given in this outline.



Task: Discuss how the current expansion of maskirovka is linked to increased reconnaissance capabilities.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The Soviet concept of the dialectic comes into play here. Progress in one field leads to further progress in its opposite. Thus the more technically sophisticated and capable reconnaissance means and methods become, the more sophisticated and elaborate counter-reconnaissance means and methods will become. Moreover, the reconnaissance channel is the classic avenue for introducing deception into the opposing headquarters. The instructor should be able to generate considerable student responses to this theme.



Task: Discuss the implications for the US of Soviet concepts of reflexive control. Then attempt to get the students into a "Red" frame of mind by asking them to brainstorm ways they would use reflexive control techniques to influence US commanders in the "real world". Can they develop methods for simulating this in the OPFOR situation?
Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The students really ought to read some of the basic literature on this subject after the course. The instructor may encourage them to do so by presenting the subject in a dynamic manner. He could pose some of the practical problems mentioned by Lefebvfre and other Soviet writers and get the students to thinking about the contemporary international situation.



4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.



5. Method of Instruction: Lecture and discussion.



6. Author's Intent: On the one hand it is difficult to base a lesson on current planning for operational deception on purely Soviet sources, since they are understandably reticent about this. However, creative use of the historical literature and application of Soviet principles of analysis to contemporary trends in weapons development should lead to a lively discussion of how deception might be incorporated into the OPFOR situation. The development of techniques for reflexive control in the OPFOR WARFIGHTER EXERCISE environment ought to be a subject for considerable investigation by the permanent OPFOR cadre. Discussion of this in the lesson may elicit considerable useful fresh approaches to implement this concept.



7. Equipment/Materials: View graphs.

8. Annexes:


Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

List of Viewgraphs

Operational maskirovka

According to Soviet analysts, the importance and role of maskirovka in contemporary conditions has increased greatly. During World War II maskirovka already played an important role, but the experience of local wars since then shows that the role is expanding. The principal reason for this is the greatly expanded importance and capability or reconnaissance in all major armed forces. On the one hand modern armed forces are developing new and improved weapons and munitions and other systems for making decisions, which rely even more directly than ever before on accurate reconnaissance information. On the other hand the technical capabilities of a wide variety of reconnaissance systems is rapidly increasing and keeping pace with the increased demands for information. At the same time the ability to defeat these weapons and reconnaissance systems must also keep pace by use of equally sophisticated and technical means for achieving maskirovka. During the Second World War the arsenal of reconnaissance methods available to commanders was less varied and effective than now. Adverse weather conditions or darkness were severe limiting factors on some reconnaissance means. Moreover, at that time the control systems, decision processes, and communication means were such that there was a significant time delay between the acquisition of reconnaissance information and the firing of weapons. At that time the delay was a matter of hours, while now the elapsed time is only minutes. And the range, accuracy and lethality of the weapons was also less than now.

Soviet military analysts write extensively about numerous Western advanced reconnaissance/ weapons systems under the general heading of reconnaissance strike and reconnaissance fire complexes. Some of the specific systems which have earned their attention include the PLSS, the Assault Breaker, SOTAS and TACFIRE. Soviet writers list twelve new American advanced systems and also mention several British and West German systems. The most important characteristics of these systems, in the Soviet estimation, is that the reconnaissance process is directly attached to the highly accurate firing systems. They take very seriously the slogan that if a target can be found it can be destroyed immediately.

Soviet writers estimate that the NATO army group has a total of 3000 various reconnaissance systems. Moreover, these systems operate on a wide variety of physical principles in such a way that even if one is defeated another may still detect a target. According to the Soviet analysts, if one wants to cover one target from the many detection methods available to the enemy, he will have to employ many separate but interrelated methods as well. Soviet writers pride themselves that during World War II the Soviet army was greatly successful in fooling the Germans, especially at the operational level. They emphasize that commanders today will have to devote even more attention to deceiving the enemy in order to be even minimally successful on the battlefield.

Maskirovka, then has shown a tendency to increase in tandem with reconnaissance. This tendency is manifested in a number of ways, such as the following:
- constant expansion of the scale and methods required, but severe reduction in the time available to do the job;
- greatly increased capability for maneuver of all forces and means has brought an increase in the dynamic rapidity of situational changes on the battlefield;
- the role of anti-reconnaissance methods has increased in peace and war;

maskirovka techniques and technologies have followed the expansion of other scientific disciplines into outer space and electronics and every other field;

maskirovka requirements for protection of the rear have grown even faster than at the front lines, as the range of enemy weapons has increased;

The importance of dispersion of forces and means for protection against mass destruction weapons and other lethal weapons brings with it certain maskirovka or anti-reconnaissance characteristics, because the difficulty of the task of reconnaissance is multiplied just by the expansion of area and the opportunities to employ false targets expands with area as well. Creating false targets as a way to dissipate enemy fire is a prime maskirovka technique. The Soviets calculate that the enemy has the capability for exact reconnaissance in the sense of pinpointing whatever target he acquires for firing weapons, and he also has techniques for distinguishing between false and real targets. Consequently the task for creating credible false targets becomes a very difficult as well as important one. For instance, a simple dummy tank may fool a visual observer, but unless additional steps are taken it won't deceive an infrared detection device.

Reflexive Control

Certainly one of the most fascinating Soviet concepts relating to deception is reflexive control. This term was coined by the Soviet researcher, Vladimir Lefebvre, while working in a military cybernetics research institute in the 1960's and early 1970's. Although direct references to this concept in Soviet open literature are quite guarded, since Lefebvre himself came to the United States in the 1980's he has elaborated at length on the subject.

The idea is based on the concept that the center of conflict in battle is not the combat unit, but the two control entities through their decision making processes. The reflexive control method is to influence the opponent's actions through channeling his decision making along a route favorable to or at least known to ourselves. If successful, this technique would give one military commander the ability to indirectly maintain control over his opponent's decisions and thus over the actions of his units. Reflexive control is also a method for giving one side a means for improving his own decisions since he will also know the outcome of his opponent's decisions ahead of time. Thus it is something that is certainly related to maskirovka as narrowly conceived of, but at the same time it is something much broader and ambitious.

Reflexive control operates on the enemy decision process through its four component elements:
- perceptions of the situation;
- goals;
- solution algorithm;
- decision.

The perception is that part of the decision process that includes the description of the nature of the conflict and the forces engaged. Some elements of perception include:
- the size and characteristics of own forces;
- size and characteristics of opponent's forces;
- physical environment in which the battle occurs;
- previous history of the two sides' actions;
- current trends in events;
- objectives and constraints of the opponent.

The enemy's perceptions are influenced by all kinds of well-known maskirovka activities. Influencing his goals themselves is something else again. According to Soviet views, the opponent's goals may be influenced by such display of overwhelming power that he gives up, or by displaying such power that he is forced to forsake all other goals in order to attempt to meet the one visible power, or by displaying such a spectrum of various possible threats that he cannot even choose which he ought to counter. The decision algorithm is more difficult to influence, however, it is possible to influence the opponent's choice of which algorithm to use in a given situation and by using surprise to influence how he uses it. Direct influence on the decision itself,is not so easy, but effective influence on the other elements will of course find their result in a changed decision.

Some of the types of reflexive control include:
- transfer of an image of the situation;
- creation of a goal for the opponent;
- transfer of a decision;
- formation of a goal by transferring an image of the situation;
- transfer of an image of one's own perception of the situation
- transfer of an image of one's own goal
- transfer of an image of one's own doctrine (algorithm)
- transfer of one's own image of a situation to make the opponent deduce his own goal;
- reflexive control of bilateral engagement by a third party
- reflexive control over an opponent who is using reflexive control
- reflexive control over an opponent whose doctrine (algorithm) game theory.

The following is a summary of the Soviet Military Thought articles on influencing an opponent by Ionov and Berezkin.

ON THE METHODS FOR INFLUENCING AN OPPONENT'S DECISIONS

One of the major categories of activity of interest within the general heading of troop control and control of combat is the problem of influencing the opponent's will and mind as he is making decisions. When selecting the methods to achieve this influence and when executing them one must consider that one is in a complex process in which the opponent is conducting analogous activities as well. M. N. Tukhachevskiy noted "... Actions are genuinely governed only by that side which achieves their development in conformity with a plan, and this means that genuine control of a combat engagement should constitute control of the entire process of combat, that is not only of one's own actions but to a certain degree the actions of the opponent as well, forced upon him by our actions... The art of control in combat demands an understanding of this complex, conflictive process.

What is control of an opponent's actions? It seems that the term "reflexive control" most precisely reflects the aspect of the control process under consideration. this term emphasizes the reciprocity of the process, which encompasses our effort not only to impose our will on the opponent with the aid of a large number of measures, but also to prevent him from exercising similar control with respect to ourselves.

To exercise control over an opponent's action the following primary activities are essential:
- penetration of the enemy's intentions and plans;
- skilled conduct of combat;
- precise execution of one's own decisions and plans;
- seizure of the initiative.

In warfare control of an opponent's actions is achieved by deluding him as to one's own intentions, capability, state, and actions of troops and concealment of their actual position; and by means of dummy, decoy, feinting actions; by seizing the initiative and exerting military pressure; and by employing bold and varied combat techniques and actions. One of the most important conditions for such control is knowing the enemy's plan and intentions. The commander must mentally put himself in the opponent's position in order better to grasp the latter's plan.

The essence of control is to cause the enemy to make and execute his decisions which are favorable to us. This may be furthered by the following actions:
- by applying the pressure of force;
- by the opponent's forming an estimate of the initial situation desired objectives or decision making procedures favorable to us;
- by influencing his choice of decision making moment.

Power pressure:

This includes easily recognized techniques. The use of force is aimed at influencing his psychological state and forming in his mind the primary objective of avoiding combat.

Techniques for shaping the enemy's initial situation estimate:

These include methods connected both with tactical camouflage and with means for "instantaneous" and abrupt change in the initial situation (surprise). These in turn affect the choice of decision making moment.

Techniques for shaping the opponent's objectives:

These are difficult for the enemy to discover, but are also more difficult for the commander to think of and develop as well. They require great knowledge and understanding of military history and art as well as of the specifics of the opponent. Objective shaping techniques are realized through the psychology of the decision making commander. These methods work through neutralization of the opponent's deductive decision making processes.

Techniques for influencing the choice of the decision making moment:

These are particularly important for air defense or other functions which operate under conditions of rapidly changing situations. Using a time shortage of the opponent is the most important technique for influencing the choice of his decision making moment.

There are connections between control and various kinds of combat support such as reconnaissance, concealment, psychological warfare, and radio-electronic warfare.

In order to ensure control of an opponent's actions reconnaissance is required on a broader scope, encompassing not only the organizational aspect but also the morale- psychological state of the enemy command and troops and determination of the effectiveness of psychological techniques being employed. Radio-electronic warfare is closely linked with techniques for influencing the enemy's decisions, but it affects only the initial situation shaping, primarily at the tactical level.

Control of an opponent's actions is of a creative character. It should not rely on chance. Likewise one should not be carried away with too many hypotheses and speculations when conducting counter control decisions. Deception in the main requires only running one step ahead of what the opponent knows about what we are doing. However, it is essential to avoid underestimating the enemy, for a sure way of being deceived is to consider oneself more clever than others.

Reflex control has a probability nature since the opponent may or may not be taken in by our devices. Selection of given method of reflex counter control is determined by the enemy's skill and experience, and his estimate of the effectiveness of the device utilized. Reflexive control, particularly at the strategic and operational levels, requires the processing of large volumes of information and consequently use of automated devices.

Historical trends in maskirovka

World War II experience

Current expansion of maskirovka linked to increased reconnaissance capabilities

Reflexive control

VG1 - Outline lesson IV
VG2 - Changes in maskirovka with reconnaissance
VG3 - Channels for operation of reflexive control
VG4 - Elements of perception include
VG5 - Types of reflexive control

Historical trends in maskirovka

World War II experience

Current expansion of maskirovka linked to increased reconnaissance capabilities

Reflexive control

Constant expansion of the scale and methods required, but severe reduction in the time available to do the job;

Greatly increased capability for maneuver of all forces and means has brought an increase in the dynamic rapidity of situational changes on the battlefield;

The role of anti-reconnaissance methods has increased in peace and war;

Maskirovka techniques and technologies have followed the expansion of other scientific disciplines into outer space and electronics and every other field;

Maskirovka requirements for protection of the rear have grown even faster than at the front lines, as the range of enemy weapons has increased;

CHANNELS FOR OPERATION OF REFLEXIVE CONTROL

Perceptions of the situation;

Goals;

Solution algorithm;

Decision.

ELEMENTS OF PERCEPTION INCLUDE

The size and characteristics of own forces;

Size and characteristics of opponent's forces;

Physical environment in which the battle occurs;

Previous history of the two sides' actions;

Current trends in events;

Objectives and constraints of the opponent.

TYPES OF REFLEXIVE CONTROL

Transfer of an image of the situation;

Creation of a goal for the opponent;

Transfer of a decision;

Formation of a goal by transferring an image of the situation;

Transfer of an image of one's own perception of the situation

Transfer of an image of one's own goal

Transfer of an image of one's own doctrine (algorithm)

Transfer of one's own image of a situation to make the opponent deduce his own goal;

Reflexive control of bilateral engagement by a third party

Reflexive control over an opponent who is using reflexive control

Reflexive control over an opponent whose doctrine (algorithm) game theory.

Instructor Notes:
Author: Jalali, Wardak, Sloan, McJoynt
Date: September 1990

LESSON IV: ORGANIZATION OF MASKIROVKA

1. General: This two hour lesson describes the principles and methods for organization of maskirovka as part of the planning for operations.

2.Sublesson Introduction: This lesson is to be given after the students have completed the course on operations planning. They should be thoroughly familiar with the standard procedures for clarifying missions, estimating the situation, reaching decision, and issuing orders. This lesson procedures on the assumption that they know the terms and understand the procedures. Maskirovka at the operational level is organized under the direction of the commander and chief of staff by the chief of the operations directorate and a small team of officers from engineers, air, chemical, and other directorates. At the lowest tactical level it is even more a matter for the commander himself, in that he will consider maskirovka as part of his routine tactical planning.

3. Teacher Learning Objective: The lesson should provide further development of the students' ability to incorporate maskirovka as a standard part of their procedures when working in the OPFOR staff. This lesson focuses on the "how to do it" aspects of the procedures for creating the plans rather than the "whys to have it".

Task: Discuss procedural staff requirements for organization of maskirovka as an integral part of the total plan.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The instructor should refer to the previous course on operations planning and the student's knowledge of the process used by the commander and staff to estimate the situation, make decisions, and issue directives. In the previous course the fact that the estimate must include considerations related to maskirovka was not stressed. Now the instructor should bring this out and point out how such considerations naturally fit into the step by step procedure when the commander is considering the enemy, own forces, terrain, etc. He should discuss the need for secrecy and the way this affects the considerations of who will participate in the planning process.

Task: Discuss the concept that the way maskirovka is organized will have a decisive influence on achieving success.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The lecture notes point out several features of organization that influence success. In discussing these the instructor may call on the students for their ideas on how to put these ideas into practice.

Task: Discuss the contents of commander's instructions on maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The commander is responsible for successful maskirovka as he is responsible for all other combat support measures. He seeks to discharge this responsibility in the first instance by issuing comprehensive instructions that will convey his policy and priorities to the staff and subordinates. As a combat support measure maskirovka is only successful to the extent that it furthers the success of the combat mission itself. Only the commander can develop a full appreciation of how maskirovka will fit into his overall concept for the operation.

Task: Discuss the sequence for organizing maskirovka.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: By discussing the sequence for organizing maskirovka the instructor has a logical framework for discussing the interrelation of maskirovka with other elements of the operation plan. The organization sequence predetermines the time phased requirements for information to be presented to the commander and developed further for use by the staff.

Task: Discuss the content of decision on maskirovka and relate each of its elements to the similar element in the operations decision itself.

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard: The decision has an aim, statement of missions, enumeration of forces and means, designation of means assigned to tasks, times for execution, sequences of actions and interrelations, and description of control measures. Each of these is present in both the maskirovka decision and the operations decision.

4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.

5. Method of Instruction: Lecture and discussion.

6. Author's Intent: The purpose of this lesson is to bring the students from the consideration of principles, procedures, methods, and technical aspects of maskirovka to consideration of how this combat support function is integrated into the commander's decision making process and incorporated into plans and directives.

7. Equipment/Materials: View graphs

8. Annexes:

Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

List of Viewgraphs

Organization of maskirovka

Maskirovka must be carefully organized with respect to mission, time, and place. This is the basic responsibility of the front staff. Organization is conducted on the basis of the operational directive and the instructions on maskirovka from higher headquarters and the operational decision and instructions of the front commander. The chief of staff directly supervises the effort, while the chief of the operations directorate takes the leading role in coordinating and providing details. All the chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services participate, along with the deputy commander for rear services. The staff organizes maskirovka in response to a number of specific situational factors including: the enemy's reconnaissance capabilities, the conditions of weather and terrain, and the capabilities of own forces and means. Preservation of secrecy is a prime consideration. Only the key staff members participate in formulating the details. The actions that are then generated in fulfillment of the plan are not necessarily identified as having anything to do with maskirovka and even for those that do the aim is not revealed. The plan will take account of and use all the various means that are available for deceiving the enemy. The most critical element to be concealed is the concept and aim of the combat operation. Along with this then goes the missions of forces and means, their locations, the location of command posts, the artillery and rocket positions, air fields, direct preparations for nuclear strikes, and the timing of deployments and other actions.

In organizing maskirovka it is important to avoid simple, stereotypical or patterned activities. Success is achieved in the following ways:
Maskirovka methods are conducted in close relation to the times, sequences and requirements of the operational plan.
The maskirovka plan itself must be secret. Typically it is prepared in a specially secured room, not open to subordinates. If the enemy discovers the essence of the maskirovka plan, he will be greatly strengthened.
The commander and staff must exercise central and continuous direction and control. Control means inspection to check on the effectiveness of the various methods.
All means must be employed in a complex and interactive manner to counter all enemy reconnaissance methods. If the staff even suspects the enemy has penetrated the design, the project should be terminated or at least changed significantly.
The procedures should include not only passive measures, but also and especially active ones. Activeness of maskirovka is a key principle. In other words, not only conceal real assembly areas, but also show false ones. And the false activities must be conducted in conjunction with real ones to give them credibility.
Maskirovka must be agile and able to change rapidly in accordance with the changing situation.
It must be realistic down to many small details.
It must be constant.

Sequence of organization

The commander is responsible for maskirovka as a combat support measure. He issues instructions on maskirovka and on this basis and the instructions of higher echelons, the staff organizes it. The contents of the commander's instructions include the following points:
- aim, tasks, and measures
- forces and means to be used
- place and deadlines for execution
- individuals responsible
- procedure for monitoring

The main officers are the operational staff, rear staff, and engineer and other staff officers.

Maskirovka is organized in subordination to, but in conjunction with the operational plan in the following sequence:
- making the decision and establishing the aim"
- developing the plan
- issuing the orders and instructions;
- conducting troop control;
- supervising and inspecting execution.

The decision and aim are developed on the basis of the commander's overall operational decision by the commander himself or the chief of staff. The operations directorate then prepares the elaborate plan with the participation of the other directorates. A special group is organized to create the plan and also to inspect its execution. The decision contains the following points:
- aim;
- missions which must be accomplished;
- forces and means to be employed;
- specific means to accomplish each task;
- times for execution;
- how sequences of actions will interrelate;
- control measures and troop control system.

The aim is determined and described in terms of the aim of the operation itself. It will be different in each operation. The detailed planning is done on the basis of the decision and prepared in two parts. The graphic part of the plan is show on a map. This depicts real and false unit assembly areas, main attack axis, unit boundaries, weapons positions, etc. and the times for fulfilling each task shown. The written part of the plan consists of notes specifying the forces and means, the signals, the statement of aim and concept, control actions, and the description of various methods that cannot be depicted on the map. An important part of the plan is the designation of the responsible individuals for each activity and the discussion of how individual activities will be inspected for effectiveness. The plan is signed by the chief of operations and the chief of staff and approved by the commander.

The orders and instructions to subordinates are issued on the basis of the plan. They are promulgated in a manner that won't reveal the aim or intent of the maskirovka. In other words, while a critical aspect in the issuing of basic, standard operational orders is to insure that they are thoroughly understood as to aim as well as content, for orders relating to maskirovka it is critical to conceal the aim of the activities being ordered.

One way this is accomplished is to keep the various complex activities separate. For a normal order requiring the interaction of many elements, for instance in the construction of an airfield, their interaction is specified and explicitly assured by direct contact. However, for the creation of a false airfield, which will require at least as much coordinated activity for depicting the many different aspects, such as buildings, radars, dummy airplanes, POL dumps, etc. the coordination is handled centrally, but without the direct interaction of the various players. Likewise, all control measures are conducted centrally and the observation and inspection is done by a specially created operational group.

Requirements for organization

Ways to achieve success

Contents of commander's instructions

Sequence for organizing

Content of decision

VG1 - Outline of lesson IV
VG2 - Ways to achieve success
VG3 - Contents of commander's instructions
VG4 - Sequence for organizing
VG5 - Content of decision
VG6 - Items shown in the graphic part of the plan
VG7 - Points specified in the written instructions
VG8 - Points shown in table form in the plan

Requirements in organizing maskirovka

Ways to achieve success

Contents of commander's instructions

Sequence for organizing

Content of decision

WAYS TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS

Maskirovka methods are conducted in close relation to the times, sequences and requirements of the operational plan.

The maskirovka plan itself must be secret. Typically it is prepared in a specially secured room, not open to subordinates. If the enemy discovers the essence of the maskirovka plan, he will be greatly strengthened.

The commander and staff must exercise central and continuous direction and control. Control means inspection to check on the effectiveness of the various methods.

All means must be employed in a complex and interactive manner to counter all enemy reconnaissance methods. If the staff even suspects the enemy has penetrated the design, the project should be terminated or at least changed significantly.

The procedures should include not only passive measures, but also and especially active ones. Activeness of maskirovka is a key principle. In other words, not only conceal real assembly areas, but also show false ones. And the false activities must be conducted in conjunction with real ones to give them credibility.

Maskirovka must be agile and able to change rapidly in accordance with the changing situation.

It must be realistic down to many small details.

It must be constant.

SEQUENCE FOR ORGANIZING MASKIROVKA

Making the decision and establishing the aim;

Developing the plan

Issuing the orders and instructions;

Conducting troop control;

Supervising and inspecting execution.

CONTENT OF DECISION

Aim;

Missions which must be accomplished;

Forces and means to be employed;

Specific means to accomplish each task;

Times for execution;

How sequences of actions will interrelate;

Control measures and troops control system.

CONTENTS OF THE COMMANDER'S INSTRUCTIONS

Aim, tasks, and measures

Forces and means to be used

Place and deadlines for execution

Individuals responsible

Procedure for monitoring

Conceal friendly troops from all types of enemy reconnaissance;

Deceive the enemy about the grouping of forces and means, intentions and actions of the friendly troops;

Hamper the enemy in his selection of targets for destruction by fire and air strikes;

Insure undetected preparation and sudden delivery of attack by friendly forces.

Maintaining the secrecy of organizing and planning the combat action of the division;

Dispersed and covered positioning and movement of troops;

Using camouflage properties of terrain, darkness, and other conditions of limited visibility (fog, rain, etc.);

Using organic and improvised means of concealment and painting equipment and installations to match the color of the terrain;

Signal security and deception;

Light concealment and masking;

Sound and acoustic masking;

Radar camouflage;

Engineer preparation of dummy (deceptive) locations of the troops and dummy targets;

Conducting deceptive movements and deceptive actions;

Secrecy in conducting engineering work;

Using smoke screens.

Aggressiveness (activeness);

Credibility;

Continuity;

Diversity.

Concealment;

Simulation;

Feints;

Disinformation.

POINTS THE DIVISION COMMANDER SPECIFIES
WHEN MASKIROVKA IS ORGANIZED

Aims, tasks, and measures for maskirovka in the division;

Forces and means to be employed, places and times for executing maskirovka measures;

Individuals who are responsible for the above measures;

Procedures for monitoring maskirovka.

ITEMS SHOWN IN THE GRAPHIC PART OF THE PLAN

Boundaries, groupings, and missions of the divisions;

Areas for establishing deceptive concentration areas of the troops, command posts, deceptive movements and time of their preparation (conduct);

Forces and means participating in feints, their composition, area of deployment, direction, and time of action and mission;

Areas and time for using smoke screens and forces and means employed.

The aim and mission of maskirovka;

Forces and means allocated;

Equipment used in maskirovka;

Methods to conduct different measures;

Responsible commanders.

POINTS SHOWN IN TABLE FORM ON
THE WRITTEN FORM OF THE MASKIROVKA PLAN

Measures to be conducted;

Places for carrying out maskirovka measures;

Times for conduct of measures;

Responsible commanders;

Forces and means to be employed;

Reaction to the enemy's various actions regarding maskirovka.

Instructor Notes:
Author: Jalali, Wardak, Sloan, McJoynt
Date: September 1990

LESSON V: EXERCISE IN PLANNING MASKIROVKA

1. General: This two hour lesson is focused on creating a maskirovka plan at the front level and implementing it at army level.

2.Sublesson Introduction:

3. Teacher Learning Objective:

Task:

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard:

Task:

Condition: Given the student class handouts.

Standard:

Task:

Condition:

Standard:

Task:

Condition:

Standard:

4. Level of Instruction: Familiarization.

5. Method of Instruction: Practical Exercise.

6. Author's Intent: This lesson is designed to give the students an opportunity to consider some practical application of maskirovka in an operational setting. They will laready have studied the given scenario in the courses on operations planning and reconnaissance.

7. Equipment/Materials

8. Annexes

Lecture notes

Discussion agenda

List of Viewgraphs