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Front Defensive Operations
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Front defensive operations are conducted within the framework
of strategic operations in the TSMA, and they are an integrated part of the
strategic operation. The role and position of a front defensive
operation in strategic operations is determined by many factors, of which the
most important are: the importance and conditions of the TSMA; the concept of
strategic operation and the phase in which the front takes up the
defense; the significance of the directions to be defended by the front
and the conditions of coordination with them; the composition and character of
enemy action; the chemical, nuclear, and biological situation; and terrain
conditions and other factors.
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I. General Principles of Front Defensive Operations
Conditions and Circumstances for Assuming the Defense
In modern warfare front defensive operations are a temporary form of
combat action. Defense is assumed when, due to inadequate troops and means,
offensive action is not possible or, considering operational and strategic
concepts and other factors, it is not desirable.
Initiation of defensive operations by the front can be assumed prior to
the outbreak of war, at the beginning of war, and also in the course of
military operations. Prior to the commencement of war, the front may
assume the defense on one axis to repel the invasion of superior enemy forces.
By the commencement of war, the need to commit the front into the
defense is felt when it has suffered heavy casualties due to enemy nuclear
attacks, while the enemy still maintains the capabilities to attack. This may
happen in case of enemy surprise nuclear attacks and also in case of a mutual
nuclear meeting engagement. At the beginning of a war conducted without the
employment of nuclear weapons, the possibility of the front assuming the
defense cannot be ruled out when the enemy attacks with superior forces or in
case the friendly forces fail to achieve success in a meeting engagement in
border areas.
In the course of offensive operations the front may take up the defense
to repel a planned or already-initiated enemy counterattack or
counteroffensive, when continuation of attack by the front does not
serve the establishment of the required superiority in troops and means over
the enemy to destroy its attacking grouping in a meeting engagement.
At the end of offensive operations, depending on the concept of the supreme
command, the front may assume the defense at the final line reached by
its troops and conduct defensive operations until the need for conducting
subsequent offensive operations on that particular axis should arise. In World
War II, in the closing phase of the war, some fronts shifted to the
defense for several months.
In modern times while conducting offensive operations, the front may
also assume the defense to cover an exposed flank of a strategic grouping of
attacking forces in the TSMA or to repel the attacks of the enemy's large
encircled or blockaded groupings attempting to break through the encirclement.
While the duration of defensive operations will be greatly decreased, such
possibilities are not out of the question.
Defensive operations may also be assumed when the defending forces are in
parity with those of the enemy or even superior to the opposing troops. In such
cases the aim of the defense will be to inflict casualties on the enemy by
defensive action, followed by initiation of an attack against an
already-exhausted enemy in the manner of the operation conducted in the Kursk
salient in 1943. In modern conditions, without the employment of nuclear
weapons, such a development cannot be excluded.
As in the past war, nowadays assuming the defense may be initiated in the
presence of close contact or without contact with enemy main forces. These
different conditions bear decisive impact on the preparations of defensive
operations. The front's defensive operation on the important axis of the
Western TSMA usually constitutes a component part of strategic offensive
operations, and it is conducted in support of the attack by the main grouping
of friendly forces.
As discussed above, the front may assume the defense under different
circumstances. The aim of the operation and the missions of front
troops, as well as the method of preparation and conduct of the defensive
operation, are determined in accordance with the actual circumstances.
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The Aim of the Front's Defensive Operation
The aim of the front defensive operation is the final outcome that
should be achieved by the front troops through defensive action. The aim
of a defensive operation is specified by the supreme commander (commander in
chief) and depends on the following factors:
- concept and missions of strategic operations in the TSMA;
- significance of the axis to be defended;
- availability of, and time for, receiving nuclear rounds;
- combat missions of adjacent units and conditions of coordination with them;
- likelihood of enemy ground and air attacks.
Moreover, the capabilities of strategic nuclear means to be planned and
employed in the front's area are also taken into account. In World War
II the aims of the front's defensive operations varied. At the initial
stage of that war the fronts established the defense in order to prevent
enemy penetration on important axes leading to industrial, administrative, and
political centers, and targets and lines of strategic significance in order to
gain time for concentration, build-up, and deployment of reserves appointed to
launch counterattacks and initiate the counteroffensive. Later on, with the
equipping of Soviet forces with artillery and tanks, along with larger
concentrations of troops and means in defense, and also with the development of
general changes in strategic capabilities and status of fronts, the aims
of defensive operations also changed. Therefore, when defensive operations were
assumed in the course of a friendly strategic offensive, their aims were:
holding the lines and areas seized by attack, inflicting casualties on the
enemy, and gaining time for preparation of the offensive on that axis or other
axes (such as the operations of the Don and Stalingrad fronts in 1942).
In modern conditions, due to the availability of nuclear weapons, the
enhancement of the firepower of conventional weapons, particularly antitank
weapons, and the intensification of the striking power and maneuver
capabilities of the troops, the capabilities of defending forces are greatly
increased. Therefore, the aim of the front's defensive operation is to
foil an enemy prepared attack during concentration and deployment of the
front's striking grouping.
Meanwhile, under most conditions, the aim of defensive operations will be to
repel enemy attack, to inflict casualties on the enemy, and to retain important
lines and vital areas. The aim of defensive operations may also include the
establishment of favorable conditions for subsequent offensive operations, if
such an operation is intended.
In the course of offensive operations, upon reaching the seashores, the aim of
the defensive operation will be to repel the landing of enemy seaborne and
airborne assault troops and to destroy them once they have landed. The aim of
the front's defensive operation at the beginning of the war is to
prevent enemy invasion of friendly territory, to hold occupied lines at the
border area, and to provide favorable conditions for the deployment of
strategic groupings of friendly forces and their organized commitment into
combat.
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Missions and Combat Compositions of the Front
The missions of the troops, the accomplishment of which can ensure the
achievement of the aim of the defensive operation, could be the following:
- inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy along the approaches leading to
defended areas;
- repelling the attack of enemy forces, including enemy air attacks, and
holding the occupied positions;
- destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into defensive areas;
- destruction of enemy airborne assault troops.
In some individual cases, with the employment of nuclear weapons, the aim of a
defensive operation can be achieved through the accomplishment of a single
mission, i.e., inflicting decisive casualties on enemy forces during their
concentration or their deployment in attack positions, to such an extent that
the enemy becomes unable to initiate the attack without receiving
reinforcements and additional means, or the enemy may cancel his intention to
attack.
To achieve the aim of defensive operations and to accomplish the specified
missions in the operation, the commander in chief specifies the combat
composition of the front, which may comprise three to four armies, or
two to three armies, one to two army corps, an air army, one rocket (SSM)
brigade, as well as one to three motorized rifle or tank divisions as the
front reserve. The above-mentioned composition of the front will
include some 12 to 20 motorized rifle and tank divisions, three to four air
forces' divisions, and three to four separate air forces' regiments. When
defending seacoasts, naval units, particularly naval bases and coastal rocket
(artillery) units, are placed under the operational command of the
front. The front is assigned a defensive area. The width of such
an area generally depends on the composition of the front, the grouping
of enemy forces and their expected attacks, and also on the nature of the TSMA
and terrain conditions. In the Western TSMA, the width of the front's
defensive area might be 350 to 400 km, while in other theaters it can be
larger.
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Characteristics of Modern Defensive Operations
The front's defensive operation includes: strikes of nuclear weapons
that are mutually coordinated in terms of aim, time, and place; combat action
of front troops conducted in the framework of a unified plan, in
accordance with the concept of the strategic operation in the theater; and the
employment of the means of the supreme command in support of the front
to repel the attack of the enemy and to hold the lines occupied.
In modern times the basis of the defense is constituted by the following:
- nuclear strikes coordinated with the fire plan of other weapons (when defense
is conducted without the employment of nuclear weapons, the firepower of
conventional weapons will be of prime importance);
- a reliable air defense system and protection of the troops and rear services'
installations against enemy weapons of mass destruction;
- firm resistance of the troops in holding vital lines and objectives;
- wide maneuvers by troops and means;
- decisive counterattacks.
The nature and characteristics of modern defensive operations are fundamentally
different from defensive operations conducted in World War II. The reason is
mainly the availability of nuclear weapons, as well as the development of the
striking and maneuvering powers of the troops and their equipment with various
combat vehicles and other hardware.
The increased capabilities of defending troops in delivering nuclear strikes
against the enemy at greater depths provides chances to destroy enemy nuclear
delivery means and to inflict heavy casualties on the enemy groups of troops,
which may decrease or even eliminate the enemy's superiority in troops and
means. Meanwhile, the enemy will also have sufficient numbers of nuclear
weapons capable of inflicting heavy casualties on defending troops during the
attack. This requires that the enemy should be overtaken in launching nuclear
attacks when the operation is conducted with the employment of nuclear weapons.
By doing so the defending forces may cause heavy losses to the enemy through
the use of nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons are used when enemy troops are
located in open areas in concentrated formations and groups and when they are
at such a distance from defensive areas that they may be effectively engaged
while ensuring the safety and protection of friendly troops.
The capability of the enemy in massive employment of nuclear weapons against
defending forces increases the importance of wise exploitation of the terrain
and the significance of quick construction of engineer works and
fortifications, as well as the importance of expert establishment of defensive
dispositions and deception of the enemy about the location and likely action of
friendly troops. The enemy should be deceived through the establishment of a
system of alternate (reserve) and deceptive (dummy) defensive positions and
areas of troop concentration, and also by applying operational concealment
measures and other actions. This may greatly decrease the effectiveness of the
employment of nuclear weapons by the enemy.
However, it is not always possible to avoid the casualties and losses caused by
enemy nuclear attacks. Therefore, defending forces are inevitably forced to
take a wide range of complicated measures to eliminate the impact of the
enemy's nuclear attack. In some cases this should be done simultaneously while
conducting combat actions to repel enemy ground and air attacks. Under such
circumstances measures must be promptly taken to restore interrupted troop
control, to evacuate vehicles and equipment from the areas of destruction, and
to take a number of other necessary actions such as: organizing medical aid to
personnel; maneuver of troops and means to seal off the gaps created by enemy
nuclear strikes; extinguishing fires and removing large obstacles, and
readjustment of the mission of the troops, particularly those of the
first-echelon troops, rocket (SSM), and air defense troops. Following the
initial enemy nuclear strike considerable readjustment and changes in actual
front defensive dispositions, and on some axes, establishment of new
defensive lines through the commitment of front and supreme command
reserves, may become necessary.
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In defensive operations prepared during peacetime, or while assuming
defensive operations in the course of the attack without the employment of
nuclear weapons, the grouping of front defending troops should comply
with the conditions of combat operations with or without the use of nuclear
weapons. Therefore, the following points are taken into consideration, and
actions are taken accordingly:
1. The width of the defensive zone for first-echelon large units (divisions) of
the armies operating on likely axes of enemy main attack should be determined
in such a way that, on the one hand, it ensures the dispersion of the troops,
in order to protect them from enemy nuclear attacks, and on the other hand, it
provides for possibilities of concentrating the required density of
conventional means for successful defensive action without the use of nuclear
weapons. As the outcome of calculations suggest, the width of division
defensive areas should be 15 to 20 km. On secondary axes this can be 30 km or
more.
2. While operating with the use of nuclear weapons, additional defensive
positions in the rear of the first defensive belt should be prepared to be
occupied by reserves moving from the rear in order to cover and block the gaps
created as a result of enemy nuclear attacks.
3. The reinforcement of first-echelon troops during the employment of nuclear
weapons is basically achieved through the commitment of troops and means
deployed in the rear. Therefore, strong reserves and second-echelon troops
should be retained, and they must be deployed on the likely axes of enemy
attack, so that they can move in the shortest possible time to reinforce the
first-echelon troops and also launch heavy counterattacks along such axes.
4. In case of employment of nuclear weapons counterattacks are planned to be
launched against the flanks and rear of enemy forces that have penetrated into
the defensive area, along with the exploitation of the impact of friendly
nuclear strikes, which are normally launched against the main grouping of enemy
penetrating forces.
Along with the development of capabilities to defend, the role of active
defense, greatly increased in modern times, includes delivering nuclear strikes
and conventional weapons fire against the enemy, and wide maneuvers by troops,
means, fires, and counterattacks. The most striking indicator of the activeness
of defense is the counterattack.
The most important condition that serves the purpose of operating with
activeness is firm holding and retention of key areas and lines on the axes of
enemy attack. This provides favorable conditions for conducting the maneuver of
troops and means. It also supports the most effective use of nuclear and all
other types of weapons, contains the maneuver of an attacking enemy, helps to
force the enemy troops to concentrate in individual areas, where they can be
hit by decisive strikes of defending troops, and facilitates the piecemeal
destruction of enemy troops.
When defending on a wide front, maneuver is of particular importance. In
such conditions the availability of transport helicopters for quick movement of
motorized rifle, antitank, combat engineer, and other units, and also for
transportation of engineer mines, ammunition, and other supplies and equipment
greatly helps the conduct of rapid maneuvers. The construction of engineer
works and fortifications in a short time is facilitated through the employment
of combat engineer equipment and machinery capable of accomplishing
construction of engineer works with speed and efficiency.
Due to the introduction of increased numbers of enemy tactical aircraft capable
of using nuclear and conventional weapons, air defense has become particularly
important in protecting the troops and rear services' targets against enemy air
attacks and providing sufficient cover for personnel and combat equipment
against enemy attempts to inflict heavy losses on them.
Equipping troops with enormous numbers of tanks and other armored vehicles has
greatly enhanced the importance of antitank defense, which now constitutes the
basic nature of combat actions. Antitank defense is established on all likely
axes of enemy tank attacks, and it is concentrated on the likely axis of enemy
main attack.
The equipment of troops with various electronic means has increased the
importance of radio-electronic warfare. The nature of radio-electronic warfare
includes actions to jam enemy electronic systems and means, and protection of
friendly forces against enemy electronic reconnaissance, as well as against its
jamming and its weapons equipped with automatic guidance systems. In defensive
operations conducted without the employment of nuclear weapons ensuring the
constant readiness of the troops to pass over to operations with the use of
nuclear weapons is of particular importance. Such a state of readiness should
enable the friendly forces to deliver timely massive nuclear strikes against
the enemy in order to: foil his nuclear attacks, inflict heavy losses on his
ground and air forces, and ensure the exploitation of the impact of nuclear
strikes by friendly troops to overcome enemy destruction through launching army
and front counterblows, or through initiation of attack by all
front troops.
To sum up, the very nature and character of modern defense set the requirements
of conducting such operations. The requirements demand that the defense must
be: firm, active, nuclear resistant, tank resistant, air forces resistant, and
able to resist enemy nuclear, chemical, air forces, and artillery attacks. It
should also be able to stand up against massive enemy tank and infantry
attacks, and should not allow the landing and combat operation of enemy
airborne and air mobile assault troops. Finally, it should be capable of
destroying the enemy troops that have penetrated the defensive area.
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II. Preparation of Defensive Operations
Content and Method of Preparation for Defensive Operations- -Front Staff
and Command Procedures
The success of defensive operations depends primarily on its detailed, through
preparation. Preparation for defensive operations comprises planning and taking
required measures on organization of the operation by the commander, staff, and
chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, as well as by party and
political organizations, plus measures concerning the organization of staff
procedures and the action of combat troops and logistic echelons, in accordance
with the decisions made by the front commander. The principal measures
concerning preparations for defensive operations are the following:
- making the decision;
- issuing missions to the troops;
- planning the operation;
- regrouping and replacing troops if required;
- occupying specified defensive areas by troops;
- organizing air defense;
- organizing counterbombardment, i.e., counterpreparatory fire (if planned to
be conducted in defensive operation);
- planning and preparing the army's and front's counterblows;
- organizing coordination; preparing engineer works;
- organizing and conducting party and political indoctrination;
- organizing all-around support of the troops;
- organizing troop control;
- establishing and deploying supplies and stores.
The methods and sequence of accomplishing the above-mentioned actions, as well
as the actions of the commander and staff, depend on the conditions of the
situation under which the operation is prepared. In this connection the
following factors are significant:
- the time available for the establishment of defensive groups of troops and
for preparation of defensive engineer fortifications and other constructions.
This will be different when assuming defense without having close contact with
the enemy than it would be when taking up the defensive in the course of an
enemy-initiated attack;
- types of weapons (nuclear or conventional) to be employed in the operation;
- status, operational situation, and nature of combat actions of friendly and
enemy troops at the time of receiving the defensive mission from the
front;
- availability of nuclear and conventional weapons and reserves of supplies and
stores.
In preparing the operation prior to the outbreak of war the front will
have plenty of time at its disposal. But in such a case, only those actions are
taken in advance that can be conducted in secrecy, so that the security of the
concept of operations is not jeopardized, and the enemy gets the wrong
impression about the actual plans of friendly forces. Such measures can be
itemized as follows:
- making the decision and planning the operation;
- planning the movement of troops to specified areas and planning the engineer
preparation of the terrain;
- organization of the method of coordination;
- organization of all types of support;
- troop control.
Practically, measures connected with the movement of the troops to occupy
defensive areas and also with engineer preparation of terrain can usually be
taken at the time of crisis with the permission of the armed forces' general
staff. Only the reconnaissance of defensive areas and the areas of deployment
of troops, construction of some roads and bridges, collection and concealment
of supplies, establishment of protected command posts, and installment of some
communications lines and signal centers can be carried out in advance.
In preparing for defensive operations in peacetime the front (military
district, group of forces) commander and staff will have sufficient time to
analyze the mission in more detail, and to evaluate and assess all matters and
factors affecting the decision in a rational fashion in order to make
reasonable and detailed calculations. In such cases the chiefs of arms and
services increasingly contribute in the process of making the decision and in
overall command and staff procedures. Moreover, planning the operation, and the
movement of troops to specified defensive areas, plus the organization of
support, is accomplished by the front staff in more detail, along with
substantiated calculations.
In order to ensure secrecy a limited number of responsible members of the
front's field troop control personnel are called to resolve questions
connected with the preparation of the operation. The documents related to the
planning of the armies' operations may also be prepared at the front
(military district or group of forces) headquarters.
To serve this purpose based on the permission of the armed forces' general
staff, the operational group of armies' staff officers, led by army commanders,
are called to the front headquarters. Practical actions of the
front (army) commanders, on organization of defense made within the
operational formations (armies) and large units (divisions), start by receiving
instructions to move front troops to specified defensive areas. During
this phase, the missions of the troops are reconfirmed, coordination (on the
map, on terrain models, or directly on the terrain) is organized, a fire system
is established, engineer construction and fortifications are made, and all
other questions concerning the preparation of the operation are resolved. The
front and army staffs and their chiefs of arms and services control the
execution of instructions, while extending assistance to subordinates in their
assigned missions.
Resolving questions regarding preparation of operations in peacetime, prior to
the arrival of enemy forces to border areas, is a very difficult task, because
advance determination of the enemy's likely concept of operation is a
tremendously complicated process. As the enemy starts moving toward the
international borders, the possibilities of disclosing his likely intentions
and concept of operation may increase. Therefore, readjustment of some elements
of the commander's decision, as well as changes in grouping and missions of the
troops, fire plan, engineer obstacles, and in the methods of coordination, may
become necessary.
Preparation of defensive operations in a situation in which the front
takes up the defense while conducting offensive operations is different from
the preparation of defensive operations conducted prior to the outbreak of war.
The difference is due to the fact that, in the former case, limited time will
be available for organizing the defense by commanders and staffs and for
practical actions of the troops to prepare for the operation. In this case the
sequence of preparations will be such that parallel actions will be carried out
at different echelons, while allocating the maximum amount of time to the
troops for taking practical measures on preparation for defense and carrying
out their tasks in accordance with the decision of the front commander.
When friendly troops take up the defense against expected enemy preplanned
counterattacks, i.e., in the absence of close contact with the counterattacking
enemy, or when the troops assume the defense at the end of an offensive
operation, the staffs and the troops will have relatively more time for the
preparation of defensive operations. On receiving the order to defend, the
commander makes the decision on a map in which he primarily specifies the
required defensive group of the front's troops and the method of
establishment of such a group in the process of changing from offensive to
defensive action. The commander adjusts the missions of the troops for the
phase of their advance, as a continuation of attack to an anticipated defensive
line, so that they reach the line where they are to assume the defense in such
a way that they comply with the planned concept of operation for defense. This
method is effective only when the group of troops quickly assumes the defense
in the closing phase of the attack. This may greatly decrease the amount of
time required to accomplish necessary tasks in support of preparing the
defense. In such cases, the decision is made in the shortest possible time. The
front staff and chiefs of arms and services are fully briefed on
assigned missions, prepare information on the situation and capabilities of
friendly troops, and forward their suggestions on the employment of their arms
and services. The front commander will usually listen only to
suggestions on such matters that are of special interest to him.
When the troops pass over to the defense during the attack of superior enemy
forces, or when friendly troops are forced to take up the defense following
their failure to achieve success in a meeting engagement, the preparation of
defensive operations develops in the course of combat action simultaneously
with attempts to repel enemy ground and air attacks primarily to stabilize the
situation of first-echelon troops on favorable lines against the enemy striking
group.
The nature of actions taken by the front commander and staff in such
conditions is such that the decision for operations is made successively for
different axes. The decision-making process in such situations begins on the
main axis with issuance of missions to troops operating on that axis. First the
main issues connected with the aim of holding favorable lines, and the
establishment of defensive groups of the troops are resolved. Subsequently,
matters related to coordination of the troops are organized or confirmed, the
counterattack and troop control are planned and prepared, and the engineer
preparation of terrain is further improved. All measures concerning preparation
of the operation are taken simultaneously at different echelons.
In situations in which front troops suffer heavy casualties from massive
enemy nuclear strikes, either at the beginning of military actions or in the
course of friendly forces' offensive operations started with the use of nuclear
weapons, the preparation for defensive operations will be conducted in the face
of great difficulties and will be carried out under complicated conditions.
Time will be limited for the accomplishment of a large number of actions to
prepare the defensive operation. In such situations, troops should first be
evacuated from the areas of intense radiation, and prompt and urgent measures
should be taken to assist casualties. Moreover, favorable lines on vital axes
are selected for defense, and the troops allocated to form the first-echelon of
the front are quickly designated and missions are assigned to rocket
(SSM) troops, air forces and artillery to deliver nuclear and fire strikes on
the enemy's nuclear delivery means and strongest groups. Then, on the basis of
the decision made for defensive operations, the front staff organizes
the plan for restoring the combat capabilities of the troops and the
elimination of the impact of enemy nuclear attacks.
As discussed above, the nature of actions in preparation of an operation, the
sequence of their execution, and the method of command and staff procedures,
will be different in various situations. Under all circumstances, constant
readiness of the troops to repel ground and air attacks of the enemy, detailed
assessment and wise use of terrain, as well as timely and organized holding and
preparation of defense, should be ensured. In addition to actions taken by the
front commander and staff on organization of the defense (such as making
the decision, planning the operation, organization of coordination and all
types of support) in all conditions, the passing over to the defense should be
deeply and comprehensively contemplated and must be harmonized with the actual
situation and with anticipation of the development of combat action, no matter
how much these thoughts are reflected in planning and combat documents.
When the time is available, a calendar plan for preparation of the operation is
worked out to include actions to be taken by the commander and staff, chiefs of
combat and combat support arms and services, party and political organizations,
and also those taken by the troops. This plan also reflects the time of
accomplishment and the people responsible for the execution of planned actions.
In the course of preparation of operations, the plan is further developed and
confirmed, while its implementation is controlled by the staff.
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Making the Decision and the Contents of the Decision
During the analysis of aims and missions, the commander should accurately
determine: the role of the front in strategic operations and its
specified missions in defense; the relationship between the missions of the
front and those assigned to adjacent fronts; and the extent of
contribution of strategic means and PVO troops to the accomplishment of the
missions assigned to the front and the method of coordination with them.
As deductions from the mission analysis, the front commander should
determine: What actions should be taken immediately or in a short time; what
measures should be taken by the staff and the chief of combat and combat
support arms and services on preparation of the operation; and what
instructions should be issued to the troops?
The estimate of the situation is the process of studying and analyzing of
information on enemy and friendly forces, adjacent units, and the terrain;
assessment of the radioactive, chemical, bacteriological, and radio-electronic
situation; analysis of national structure and class composition of the
population in the operational area, their political thinking and their attitude
toward friendly forces; assessment of the economic situation in combat
operation areas and also the hydrometeorological situation, the season, and the
duration of daylight and night. As a result of the estimate of the situation,
the front commander determines the following points:
- likely concept and character of enemy operation; enemy capabilities to use
nuclear and chemical weapons, and essential elements of reconnaissance,
(principal tasks of reconnaissance); relative balance of forces along the
likely axes of enemy's blows; what grouping of the forces should be formed and
at what time; the measures to be taken on restoring the combat capabilities of
the troops in case they are exposed to enemy nuclear attacks.
- capabilities of the front to attempt the following actions: to foil
the enemy's attack or to weaken its strikes through the use of nuclear or
conventional weapons during the enemy's movement along the approaches leading
to the defense, to repel enemy ground and air attacks; and to destroy enemy
troops that have penetrated into defensive areas.
- the axis where the main effort of the front is concentrated and
terrain features, the retention of which insures the overall firmness and
integrity of the defense.
- the main lines for deployment of the troops and for the establishment of
defensive areas (belts) of the army's first and second-echelon large units
(divisions); the areas and lines of the front's second-echelon troops
and reserves; fire position areas for surface-to-surface and surface-to-air
missiles; the direction of maneuver of troops and means in the course of the
operation; and the deployment areas of command posts.
The front commander specifies the following points in his decision for a
defensive operation:
- the concept of the operation;
- the missions of nuclear weapons;
- the missions of first-echelon armies;
- the missions of second-echelon armies;
- the missions of the combined arms reserve;
- the missions of rocket troops and artillery;
- the missions of air forces;
- the missions of air defense troops;
- the missions of engineer and chemical troops;
- composition and missions of mobile antitank reserve and mobile obstacles
detachment;
- the time of occupation of defensive positions by the troops and the time of
readiness of the fire system;
- the nature and gradual sequence of accomplishment of engineer works;
- organization of troop control.
In the concept of operation, the following points are specified:
- grouping of enemy forces, their likely axes of attack, and the time of
initiation of attack by an enemy group of forces;
- where, when, by what means (with or without the employment of nuclear
weapons), and in what forms and methods actions are taken to inflict losses on
the enemy and to foil or repel its attack;
- axes and areas where the main efforts of the front are concentrated;
- operational formation (disposition) of the troops and the form of
establishment of defensive areas (belts).
In working out the concept of operations the most favorable form of the
employment of front forces and means to accomplish assigned missions and
to achieve the aim of the operation, primarily the method of use of nuclear
weapons, are selected. The front commander specifics in which phase of
defensive combat decisive casualties should be inflicted on the enemy, and
accordingly, when the bulk of nuclear rounds allocated to the front's
defensive operation should be used, i.e., prior to the initiation of an enemy
attack, while repelling the attack, or during the conduct of counterattacks
against the enemy. In resolving these questions the commander takes the
following factors into close consideration: availability and time of receiving
nuclear rounds; probable effectiveness of nuclear strikes in different
situations of friendly troops and enemy targets (the effectiveness of such
strikes would not be the same in different situations, such as prior to the
initiation of enemy attack and in the course of enemy attacks); and the
possibilities of timely determination of exact coordinates of the targets. When
assuming the defense prior to the outbreak of war and also in situations in
which the front takes up the defense in the course of its offensive
operations without the use of nuclear weapons, in determining the grouping of
the troops, their decisive concentration on the most likely axes of the attack
of enemy main forces, and the integrity of the defense are of significant
importance.
A frontal counterattack is planned on two or three axes in accordance
with the likely axes of attack of enemy main forces. Moreover, the aim of the
counterattack is specified, which differs with the composition of the
front's second-echelon troops and reserves, as well as with the
composition of the enemy attacking group. In one case, the aim of the
counterattack will be the destruction of penetrating enemy forces and the
restoration of the defense, while in another case it might be the destruction
of enemy striking groups and restoration of the defense along with seizure of
vital objectives in enemy territory, which may provide favorable conditions for
passing over to the attack.
The missions of frontal troops are specified in accordance with the
concept of operation. The missions assigned to the troops include the following
points:
(1) To first-echelon armies:
- combat composition, attachments, defensive areas, and axes or areas of
concentrating for the main effort;
- where, when, and on which enemy formation(s), heavy losses should be
inflicted and its attack repelled;
- the number and yield of nuclear rounds to be employed in the army's area by
higher echelons;
- areas of counterpreparatory fire (counterbombardment), and if such fire is
planned, the troops and means to be tasked for such action;
- axes of counterattacks and lines of deployment of the troops for
counterattacks;
- missions of adjacent units and the method of coordination with them;
- missions of front aircraft in the area of the army's defense and the
method of interaction with them;
- method and nature of preparing engineer works and fortifications in defensive
areas;
- location of command posts;
- the time of readiness of defense and of the fire system.
(2) To second-echelon armies (combined arms reserve):
- areas of concentration or areas to be held and prepared;
- missions, axes of counterattacks, movement routes, and the lines of
deployment for counterattacks;
- the numbers of allocated nuclear rounds;
- method of cover against the enemy's air attacks and the method of air support
of the troops;
- method of interaction with first-echelon forces and other troops;
- missions concerning fighting enemy airborne assault landings and instructions
on protection of the troops against mass destruction weapons;
- the command post.
(3) To rocket (SSM) troops:
- areas of main and alternate (reserve) positions and the method and time of
constructing (digging in) the positions and their occupation;
- numbers of missiles to be launched, and the method of their preparation and
movement to the launch positions;
- missions, targets to be destroyed, and method of delivering nuclear strikes;
- measures ensuring the preparation of rocket troops to use nuclear weapons in
conditions of conducting combat operations with conventional weapons;
- missions concerning fighting enemy nuclear-delivery means and missions on
destruction of enemy attacking and penetrating groups;
- method of rocket troops' maneuver and relocation;
- measures ensuring the security of friendly troops against the impacts of own
nuclear weapons, and also measures on assessment and control of the impact of
the nuclear strikes.
(4) To artillery troops:
- composition, missions, and the areas of deployment during the conduct of
counterpreparatory fires during the front's counterattacks; missions to
combat enemy nuclear delivery means and troops during their approach to
defensive areas and also while repelling enemy attacks and launching of
counterattacks; allocation of ammunition to missions and to operational
formations (armies); and time of readiness of artillery fire systems.
(5) To the front air army:
- missions and targets to be destroyed by nuclear weapons, and the method of
delivery of the strikes (low air burst, high air burst, etc.)
- measures on ensuring the preparation for use of nuclear weapons when combat
actions are conducted only with conventional weapons;
- missions for combatting enemy nuclear weapons and also for destruction of
enemy groups of forces on approaches to the defense, during the conduct of
counterpreparatory fires, and while repelling enemy attacks and during
counterattacks;
- method of interaction with motorized infantry (or tank) units, rocket (SSM)
troops, and also with frontal and PVO air defense troops in the course
of the operation.
(6) To air defense troops:
- in covering groupings of the troops, where the main efforts of air defense
troops should be concentrated at the beginning and during the course of the
operation;
- methods of combatting enemy air attacks while covering the troops during
counterpreparatory fires and during counterattacks;
- method of interaction with fighter aircraft and with operational formations
(large units) of PVO forces;
- method and time of deployment of air defense units at the beginning of the
operation and their maneuver during the operation.
(7) To the mobile antitank reserve and mobile obstacle detachment:
- composition, areas of concentration, axes or areas of operation for the
mobile obstacle detachment, and method of maneuver and coordination with first
and second-echelon troops.
(8) To combat engineer and chemical reserves:
- their composition and areas of deployment.
After making the decision, the front commander usually issues
instructions to the staff and to the chiefs of combat and combat arms and
services on planning the operation, on establishment of coordination, on party
and political work, on troop control, on the establishment of the defensive
group of troops, on their preparation for the accomplishment of assigned
missions, on support of their combat actions, and on organization and
operations of rear services' echelons.
The decisions of the front commander are marked on the map by the
front staff along with working-out necessary written instructions. Based
on the commander's decision, the operational directive is established. Missions
are assigned to the troops by issuing related written excepts from the
operational directive to them or by sending them individual operational orders
or instructions.
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Planning the Operation
Planning the operation is worked-out jointly by the front staff, chiefs
of combat and combat support arms and services, and the staff of the
front air army. The planning of the operation is conducted on the basis
of the front commander's decision and his instructions on planning the
operation. The nature of planning is specification of a unified direction of
actions, the best method for their accomplishment, and specification of the
most effective use of troops and means in successful accomplishment of assigned
missions and achievement of the aim of operations. The following points are
specified in the plan:
- the sequence and form of accomplishment of missions on inflicting losses on
the enemy on approaches leading to the defense, on repelling an enemy attack,
and on destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into defensive
positions;
- groups of forces and air forces' units, allocation of the efforts of troops
and supplies to different missions, and axes of combat actions;
- method of coordination among the troops, all-around support of combat
actions, and troop control.
The execution of missions in operations is planned so that front troops
can accomplish them in conditions of conducting the operation with or without
the employment of nuclear weapons. In order to foil a prepared enemy attack,
nuclear strikes, as well as the strikes of air forces using conventional
weapons are planned in detail against likely areas of deployment of enemy
nuclear-delivery means, airfields and air bases, groups of enemy main forces
during their advance and their deployment for attack, and also enemy command
posts and air defense means. If the operation is prepared in peacetime, then
the above-mentioned tasks would constitute the basic contents of initial
front nuclear strikes, and front troops should be prepared to
follow them by initiating the attack.
If counterpreparatory fires are anticipated and planned in operations without
the employment of nuclear weapon, then they are planned on one or two axes to
inflict losses upon the enemy in his start positions. The form of firing laid
out in counterpreparatory fires, as well as artillery and air forces' units to
be called for conducting such fires and the method of taking up firing
positions, are specified for the artillery.
If the area to be covered by counterpreparatory fires is specified in the
limits of the defensive area of one army, its size can be ten to 15 km both in
width and in depth. But if it is specified at adjoining flanks of two armies,
the figure may reach 20-25 km and the density of artillery operating in the
area will be 40-50 pieces per kilometer of front. If the air forces are
also called to participate in counterpreparatory fires, their strikes are
planned on areas beyond the range of artillery. The depth of counterpreparatory
fires reaches 25-30 km. The duration of counterpreparatory fires can be 25-30
minutes.
The counterattacks of the army's and front's second-echelon forces
(reserves) are planned on two or three axes. On each axis the following points
are specified:
- the aim of the counterattack; the missions of motorized rifle and tank troops
participating in the counterattack; method of movement to, and deployment on,
specified lines; and the axis and form of their actions during launching the
counterattack;
- missions of rocket (SSM) troops, artillery, air forces' and air defense
troops;
- missions of first-echelon armies defending in the area of counterattack;
- the method of coordination;
- measures for supporting the counterattack and method of troop control.
When preparing the defensive operation in the course of military actions
without the use of nuclear weapons, particular attention is paid, during the
planning of the employment of conventional means, to working out measures
directed to ensure constant readiness of the troops to launch the initial
nuclear strike and to pass over to actions employing nuclear weapons. The
following points are specified to fight against enemy airborne- assault landing
troops;
- likely landing areas of enemy airborne assault troops, composition of enemy
landing troops, and likely character of their combat actions;
- missions of rocket (SSM) troops and air forces for the destruction of enemy
airborne assault troops in their assembly areas, on the airfield and during
their embarkation in aircraft (helicopters);
- missions of air defense troops and means for the destruction of enemy
airborne assault troops in the air;
- troops and means assigned to destroy enemy airborne assault troops after
their landing, and their missions.
The planning of the operation is completed with the creation of the operations
plan. The chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services work out the
plans for the combat employment of their subordinate arms and services, while
the chief of logistics works out the logistics support plan, which is part of
the operations plan. The plan of the front's defensive operation is
prepared graphically on a 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scale map, in which the
composition of the enemy's group of troops, their likely axis of attack, the
operational formation of friendly troops, the defensive area (lines), nuclear
strikes against the enemy, artillery fire plans, systems of obstacles, lines of
deployment for counterattacks, group of units and large units, airbases,
command posts, the main rear service units and installations of the
front and those of the armies, maneuver routes and supply and evacuation
routes are depicted. The graphical part of the plan should be properly marked
and clearly understandable; unnecessary details should be avoided.
The written part of the plan addresses the following points:
- deductions of the estimate of the situation;
- the goal and concept of the operation;
- combat composition of the front;
- distribution of support arms and means;
- availability, time of delivery, and allocation of nuclear rounds to different
missions and among different operational formations (armies);
- allocation of combat sorties of the front air army;
- relative balance of the troops in the entire defensive area of the
front and on different axes;
- calculation of time for the movement of second-echelon troops and reserves to
specified deployment lines to launch counterattacks or to reinforce
first-echelon troops;
- availability, time of delivery, and distribution of supplies and stores;
- time of readiness of fire system; engineer works and fortifications;
- troop control signals.
The plan of the defensive operation can also be prepared in written form, with
the map of the front commander's decision attached to it.
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The Lay-out of the Front's defense
The lay-out of the front's defense includes the disposition of the
following:
- grouping of troops and means across the front and in depth;
- nuclear strikes;
- the system of defensive positions, lines, and belts;
- blocking positions;
- deployment areas of rocket (SSM) troops and SAM units;
- lines of deployment to launch counterattacks;
- the fire system and the strikes of air forces using conventional weapons;
- air defense system;
- engineer preparation of the terrain.
The basis of the defensive lay-out is established by grouping the troops and
means and the nuclear strikes. The other elements of the defensive lay-out, as
mentioned above, are decided in accordance with the established grouping of
troops and means and the specified method of the employment of nuclear weapons.
The grouping of troops and means depends on the following:
- the width of the defensive area and combat composition of the front;
- the conditions of taking up the defense;
- character of the terrain, particularly the numbers, size, and width of axes
favoring the advance and attack of the enemy;
- the strength of likely enemy strikes and the conditions for conducting
maneuvers by friendly troops and means in the course of the defensive
operation.
The groups of troops and means are established in such a way as to ensure the
following:
- exploitation of favorable terrain features and quick establishment of
engineer construction;
- effective employment of all weapons to inflict losses on enemy ground and air
forces;
- insuring the firmness of defense in key areas;
- intensification of resistance against the enemy on dangerous axes;
- deceiving the enemy about the real grouping of front troops;
- making it difficult for the enemy to select proper targets for destruction;
- ensuring the protection of the troops against enemy nuclear attacks and
against the fire of conventional weapons;
- ensuring continuous interaction and troop control.
Since the troops and means will not be sufficient to establish a strong defense
on all favorable axes, the main efforts in establishing the groups of troops
and means are concentrated on the decisive axis defended by first-echelon
troops of the front and the armies, while second-echelon troops and
reserves are allocated to enhance the efforts from the rear and to launch
counterattacks. The first-echelon army defending on the axis of likely enemy
main attack may be assigned an area 100-150 km wide. Terrain offering the enemy
difficult access is defended by a limited number of troops. In such areas the
troops may defend on wide fronts, while leaving gaps between units to be
covered by fire and obstacles.
The operational formation of the front may be established in one or two
echelons that consist of the following elements:
- first-echelon armies;
- second-echelon armies;
- combined arms reserve;
- group of SSM troops;
- air forces' group;
- air defense group;
- engineer and chemical troops directly attached to the front;
- various special reserves;
- mobile antitank reserves;
- mobile obstacle detachments.
The front's first-echelon troops are designed to repel the enemy attack,
to inflict heavy losses on enemy forces, to hold and retain important areas and
terrain features, and to provide favorable conditions for the front's
counterattack. The bulk of the front's troops and means are allocated to
the first-echelon. The front's first-echelon army prepares and holds two
to three defensive belts. The first belt is the main defensive belt, and it is
defended by first-echelon divisions of the army. The second and third belts,
which are also known as the army's second and third defensive lines, are
defended by second-echelon (reserve) divisions. The first defensive belt
consists of three or more defensive positions, and its overall depth may reach
20 km. The second and third belts each consist of one or two positions. The
distance between the second defensive belt and the first defensive belt is
80-100 km in depth from the FEBA of the first defensive belt. The total depth
of the front first-echelon army's defensive area may reach 100-120 km or
more. When organizing the defense when not in close contact with the enemy, a
security zone 15 km or more in depth is established in front of the
first defensive belt. The security zone is established to delay enemy attack,
to force the enemy into a premature deployment, to divert the enemy attack to
unfavorable axes, and to detect the enemy group of troops and its intentions.
The security zone is usually defended by motorized rifle and tank troops from
first-echelon divisions. The security zone is also established in situations of
assuming the defense in the course of offensive operations when the FEBA is not
selected on the line of contact, but is established in depth.
The second-echelon of the front is normally assigned to launch the
counterattack. In some situations, in the course of the defensive operation,
the front's second-echelon troops may partially or entirely establish
the defense on vital operational lines in depth on the axis of the enemy main
attack in order to delay its attack and to inflict heavy losses by defensive
action. The composition of the front's second-echelon may include a
combined arms army or army corps.
The combined arms reserve consists of various numbers of motorized rifle and
tank divisions. It is designated to reinforce troops operating on decisive
axes, or to relieve large units that have lost their combat capabilities. The
reserve is also assigned to launch counterattacks, to destroy enemy airborne
assault landing troops, and to accomplish other unexpected missions that may
arise in the course of defensive operations. In the absence of second-echelon
troops in the front, the combined arms reserve is established in great
strength. Such a strong reserve, along with the armies' second-echelon troops,
constitutes the group of troops required to launch counterattacks.
The front's second-echelon army establishes its defense at a distance of
150 km or more to the rear of the FEBA. The divisions included in the combined
arms reserve deploy in assembly areas or hold defensive lines on vital axes
while ready to deal with unexpected situations and conduct new missions in the
course of the defensive operation.
By employing the front's second-echelon troops and combined arms
reserve, one or two separate front defensive lines are established that
are located 60-80 km from the FEBA of the first-echelon army's last (rear)
defensive belt. Such a distance provides the proper conditions for a dispersed
and concealed deployment of the front's second-echelon troops and
reserve and gives it the capability to conduct quick maneuvers on each axis in
order to launch counterattacks or to accomplish other missions. Moreover, at
such a distance, the selection of deployment areas and positions for air
defense missiles, airfields for the front air army, position areas for
air defense missiles, and areas of deployment for combat support troops and for
rear service units and installations can be achieved in a most effective way.
The overall depth of the front defense, with two to three army defensive
zones and one to two front defensive belts, may reach 250-300 km. In the
area of the front (army) defense blocking lines (belts), alternate
(reserve) positions and lines, and deceptive defensive positions and areas are
also established. The group of rocket (SSM) troops is established in close
consideration of the following requirements:
- full use of its capabilities to deliver massive and group nuclear strikes on
the main axis, and full use of its maneuver capabilities across the entire area
of the front's responsibility;
- inflicting heavy losses on enemy groups on approaches leading to the defense,
in front of the FEBA, and to the depth of the defensive zone;
- insuring the strength and firmness of combat formations of rocket troops
during enemy nuclear attacks and during the penetration of enemy forces into
the defensive zone.
Each rocket (SSM) brigade is assigned one main position area and one to two
alternate (reserve) areas. For a P-300 SSM brigade the main position area is
selected 60-80 km from the FEBA, while its alternate (reserve) positions are
specified 15-30 km apart from its main position area. The installations of
rocket troops' position areas are constructed by SSM troops themselves.
Engineer units of the front may be called for this purpose as necessary.
The group of the front air forces is established in close consideration
of the following requirements: to insure favorable conditions to accomplish the
missions of the air army; effective use of air attacks against the enemy's
nuclear delivery means and against the main attacking group; and effective
employment of air forces to conduct air reconnaissance and to repel enemy air
attacks in coordination with front and PVO troops, as well as with air
defense means of adjacent operational formations (fronts, armies). The
fighter-bomber and reconnaissance air forces' units are deployed at a distance
of 100-150 km from the FEBA, while the bomber air forces' units are based
200-300 km away from the FEBA in depth. Each air forces division is assigned an
airfield complex, including four to six operational airfields and two to three
reserve airfields.
The front's air defense troop grouping is established by SAM units and
large units, antiaircraft artillery units and large units, and electronic
troops. The grouping of these troops and means is established in such a way
that along with the fighter force of the front air army, and in close
coordination with PVO large units, as well as air defense troops and means of
adjacent formations, they prevent enemy attacks on all axes against the main
group of friendly forces and against airfields and vital logistic targets. They
should also destroy enemy airborne assault troops in the air and should not
allow flights of enemy aircraft and pilotless devices (drones) into the depth
of friendly territory. The front's air defense units and large units
sufficiently cover SSM troops, second-echelon forces, and the front's
troop control posts.
The group of the front's engineer troops is established by the following
elements:
- engineer troops attached to first-echelon armies and to SSM and SAM troops;
- mobile obstacle detachments;
- engineer troops allocated to carry out tasks in general interest of the
front;
- engineer troops allocated to front reserve (engineer reserve).
The group of front chemical troops is established to accomplish missions
for chemical support of the operation. The chemical protection units are
normally deployed in areas selected for special decontamination of the troops.
The group of radio-electronic warfare troops and means is established in close
consideration of the requirements to jam command and control means and guidance
systems of the enemy's weapons on important axes of likely enemy attacks, and
also to ensure the maneuver and stepping-up of the actions of radio- electronic
jamming operations in the course of the defensive operation.
The front's mobile antitank reserves are established by large antitank
units of the supreme command attached to the front, to include one to
two antitank artillery brigades. They are designated to reinforce the antitank
defense of first-echelon armies, to destroy groups of enemy tanks that have
penetrated into the depth of the defense, and also to support the deployment of
the counterattacking group of the front. The mobile antitank reserves
are normally deployed on two axes by preparing two to three firing lines on
each axis, 12-18 km wide for each antitank artillery brigade. The mobile
antitank reserve operates independently or jointly with the mobile obstacle
detachment.
Mobile obstacle detachments are tasked to mine and construct obstacles on the
main axes of the enemy attack. Normally two mobile obstacle detachments are
established in the front, each consisting of one engineer battalion. The
reserves of combat and combat support arms are dispersed in the front's
area close to road centers and usually in front of the front's
second-echelon large units. They are kept in constant readiness to carry out
unexpected tasks.
Nuclear strikes in the front's defensive operation are one of the vital
elements of the defensive layout. The successful accomplishment of missions by
front troops in the defensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons
depends on proper organization and timely preparation of nuclear strikes.
Preparation of nuclear strikes is conducted is accordance with the decision of
the front commander on employment of nuclear weapons in the defensive
operation. The nuclear strikes are prepared along with details on different
states of readiness in specified conditions of the situation.
These situations are when the defense is organized in the face of conditions in
which the enemy has completed the grouping of his troops and means for the
attack (counterattack), or is in the process of completing such a grouping, in
order to inflict losses on the enemy on approaches leading to the defense or in
front of the FEBA. The targets to be destroyed, numbers and yields of nuclear
rounds and their delivery means to each target, types of bursts, and the time
of launching nuclear strikes are specified.
When the enemy forces are dispersed, deployed in assembly areas a great
distance away, or on the move, launching nuclear strikes against them will be
less effective. In such cases, the enemy's likely concentration and deployment
areas for attack are determined, and nuclear strikes, including the specified
number of rounds to be launched against them once they arrive in such areas,
and also the location of some targets, are determined. Questions concerning the
preparation of subsequent nuclear strikes while repelling enemy attack and in
the course of conducting the counterattack are resolved in such a way that
these strikes, including the number of allocated rounds, the yield of nuclear
rounds, means of their delivery, and also the areas where the enemy will be
engaged, are all roughly determined in advance.
To deal with unexpected situations and to resolve unanticipated missions,
particularly to destroy enemy nuclear weapons, a necessary number of nuclear
rounds of different yields, different ranges, and accuracy of fire, employed by
different delivery means, are retained in reserve.
Nuclear weapons are employed in the defensive operation to accomplish the
following:
- to destroy enemy nuclear delivery means where they are located;
- to inflict heavy losses on the main enemy advancing columns, as well as on
concentrating, attacking, or penetrating enemy forces, especially the group of
tank forces;
- to destroy the enemy while conducting counterattacks;
- to interrupt enemy troop control and the operation of rear services.
The principal targets of nuclear weapons can be the following:
- surface-to-surface missile troops and artillery in firing positions;
- storage depots of weapons of mass destruction;
- motorized rifle (infantry) and armored units;
- airfields and aircraft based on them;
- air defense means;
- command posts;
- vital targets at the enemy rear services echelon.
In the front defensive operation a limited number of nuclear rounds are
allocated. Therefore, only individual or group nuclear strikes are delivered in
the course of the operation. Massive nuclear strikes, to inflict heavy losses
on the enemy, can be employed in the phase of the enemy's preparation for the
attack or during the conduct of the front's counterattack. In the
defense nuclear weapons are used in the form of surface or air bursts. Surface
bursts are usually employed in favorable meteorological conditions and
principally to inflict losses on enemy targets deployed in depth, and also
against enemy troops during their advance and deployment for attack.
In case of relatively limited availability of nuclear rounds, particular
significance is given to their employment on the main axis to resolve the most
important tasks. In this case the planning of the employment, and command and
control of nuclear attacks is centralized.
During preparations for defensive operations in peacetime, and when the troops
take up the defensive in the course of an offensive operation without the
employment of nuclear weapons, the front will have a sufficient number
of nuclear rounds to foil organized enemy attacks. In this case the
front initiates the attack quickly following its initial nuclear strike
in accordance with arrangements made during the preparation of the operation.
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The Fire System
The fire system of conventional weapons includes the following:
- organized fire strikes against the enemy on the approaches to the defense;
- the establishment of multi-layered massive fires of all types of weapons to
the immediate front of the FEBA, at the flanks and in the rear;
- maneuver by fire on all axes, particularly in dangerous areas.
The air forces launch conventional weapons strikes against the enemy either
together with the front's firing means or independently. The air forces
generally engage moving and small targets located beyond the range of
artillery.
Fire systems and air forces' strikes in the defense should insure the
following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means;
- inflicting losses on the enemy in assembly areas, during movement, on
deployment lines, or in attack positions;
- neutralization of enemy artillery, air defense means, command posts, and
radar stations;
- support of friendly troops operating in the security zone;
- repelling massive attacks of enemy infantry and tanks;
- destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into the rear of the
defensive disposition;
- counterpreparatory fire and support of counterattacks;
- covering flanks, gaps, engineer obstacles, natural barriers, and also the
areas hit by enemy nuclear attacks.
The fire system and air strikes are organized in the entire area of the
front's responsibility for defense, in front of each defensive
belt and line, and within belts and lines. They are organized in more detail
particularly on the main axes of enemy attack. The deployment and positioning
of the weapons should ensure inflicting losses on the enemy through the use of
flanking fire, crossfire, surprise, short-range, concentrated fire with maximum
density, and also through the use of the "pocket of fire." All
weapons should be ready for wide maneuvers.
The air defense system in modern times is established to provide reliable cover
for the main group of the troops and the front's important targets,
particularly rocket troops, air forces, and front operational formations
and large units operating on important axes. It should also cover the
second-echelon troops and the front's reserves in their deployment area,
as well as during the conduct of the armies' and front counterattacks.
The front's air defense system includes the following elements:
- reconnaissance of the enemy's aircraft and warning front troops about
the enemy;
- covering front troops and targets with surface-to-air missiles and
antiaircraft artillery;
- covering troops with fighter aircraft;
- troop control of air defense troops and coordination within the
front's air defense troops and also with air defense means of adjacent
fronts and with those of PVO forces.
Engineer preparation of terrain in the defense includes the following
arrangements:
- fortification of defensive belts, as well as of position areas of
surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missile troops and artillery positions;
- preparation of deployment lines for launching counterattacks;
- preparation of deployment areas of command posts, second- echelon troops,
combat support units, large units, and the rear services;
- establishment of engineer obstacles in front of the FEBA and in the
rear of the defense;
- construction and/or improvement of routes of maneuver and supply, and
evacuation routes.
Engineer preparation of terrain is conducted throughout the entire depth of the
defense in order of priority to ensure constant readiness of the troops to
repel enemy attack and to provide protection against all means of destruction.
Engineer preparation of terrain begins with the organization of the system of
fire and is conducted by all troops, with maximum use machinery, tools, and
prefabricated construction material and with the full use of the troops.
Engineer works of first priority in large units occupying defensive belts are:
- digging pits for weapons and trenches for personnel;
- construction of coverlets-type installations for observation posts, shelters
in command posts, and in medical centers;
- installation of obstacles in front of the FEBA, in gaps, and at the flanks;
- preparation of fields of fire for antitank weapons, deployment lines for
counterattacks, and movement routes to such lines;
- establishment of water supply points;
- preparing bridges, pipelines, water pipes, and other vital targets for
destruction.
To accomplish the above-mentioned works, the troops will need five to six
hours. Engineer works of second priority:
- foxholes are integrated into the squad's trenches and alternate positions are
prepared for weapons and tanks;
- the foxholes are connected with each other by trenches and communications
trenches are dug out;
- deployment lines for counterattacks and firing lines of antitank weapons are
improved, covered trenches and shelters for personnel and shelters for
vehicles, supplies, and stores are prepared;
- the density of obstacles in front of the FEBA, in depth, and at the flanks
and gaps is intensified, and the routes of maneuver are improved.
Engineer preparation of the front's and army's defensive positions is
conducted during the preparation, as well as during the conduct of defensive
combat, by large units included in second-echelon troops and reserves and also
by engineer fortification units. In certain situations the local population,
with civilian vehicles and those of the national economy, are employed for this
task as well.
Engineer obstacles are established along with the fire system, in close
consideration of natural obstacles and barriers and also in accordance with
actual and planned demolition fires, and flooded areas. The obstacles are
established primarily on the main axes of the tank threat. For complete
engineer preparation of the front's defensive belts, eight to ten days
and nights are required.
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Organization of Interaction
Interaction in front defensive operations is organized on the basis of
the troops' mission and likely axes of enemy attack. Establishment of
interaction in support of the accomplishment of missions to inflict losses on
the enemy during its advance, and in the course of the deployment for attack,
is organized by the front commander by directing and allocating the
actions of the rocket (SSM) troops, air forces, and artillery to targets,
including the time and place of delivering strikes, in a coordinated form.
Particular attention is concentrated on inflicting timely, effective losses on
enemy nuclear weapons, its main group of forces, its air forces, and also on
its command posts. During the confirmation of the above-mentioned actions, the
army commander specifies measures for protecting the troops against friendly
nuclear strikes.
Coordination in repelling the enemy attack is organized directly on the most
likely axes of attack. On each axis, the time and place of inflicting losses on
enemy attacking groups by nuclear or conventional weapons, the method of
holding vital defensive areas and lines by the troops, their reinforcement by
army and front means, and the method of conducting counterattacks
against the penetrating enemy by army means are specified.
If a security zone is established in front of the FEBA, the front
commander specifies the method of action of the troops allocated to that zone,
as well as the action of supporting troops and their protection and supply.
To destroy large enemy forces that have penetrated into the depth of the
defense, the principal attention in the interaction of coordination is
concentrated on the distribution of targets to be destroyed by SSM troops, air
forces, and artillery and the method of launching strikes against them in
accordance with the front's and army's plan, and also on coordination of
these strikes with the operation of defending troops and those called to launch
the front's counterattack.
As for the front's second-echelon troops and reserves, the method of
their movement and deployment, and the time and form of launching the
counterattacks are specified. The defending troops are instructed on areas and
lines to be held in support of providing the best conditions for launching the
counterattack, and also on the method of participation of their troops in the
front's counterattack and in consolidation of seized lines. Moreover,
measures on covering counterattacking forces against enemy air attacks during
their movement, as well as during their deployment and conduct of the
counterattack, are specified, and support of their action is provided.
Troops and means are allocated to cover gaps and adjoining flanks of armies
with adjacent fronts, and the time of readiness of obstacles and the
fire system is specified. The actions of the front's units and large
units in repelling the enemy's attack and destroying penetrating forces are
coordinated. The major topics of interaction are specified by the front
commander in the decision for the operation. The method of interaction is
described to subordinate commanders and staffs during the assignment of combat
missions through additional instructions on interaction. Depending on the time
available, the practical procedure on organization of interaction is carried
out on the map, on terrain models, or directly on the terrain. Matters
concerning coordination are reflected in the plan of defense, in the plans for
the combat employment of combat arms, and in the plans of different types of
support.
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Establishment of Troop Control
The establishment of troop control in the front's defensive operation
includes the following elements:
- preparation of command posts and organization of their operation;
- establishment of a signal communications system;
- maintaining the constant readiness of the staffs to command and control the
subordinate troops.
The following command posts are established in the front's defensive
operation: main command post, alternate command post, and rear command post. An
airborne command post, from which the front commander controls the
troops during flight to one of the combat operation areas, may also be
established. In some situations an auxiliary command post is established as
well, in order to control troops operating on an independent and separate axis.
During the conduct of the front's counterattack, a forward command post
is also established.
The main command post is the principal place of troop control. The main command
post is deployed at one of the flanks of the axis of the enemy's likely main
attack at a distance of 100-120 km from the FEBA in an area that can provide
concealed deployment and quick operation of the command post. Engineer
preparation of the command post should insure reliable protection of personnel,
communications means, and transport vehicles against enemy attacks.
An alternate command post is established at the flank or at the rear of the
main command post in an area that can permit reliable troop control in case the
main command post is destroyed. It is manned constantly by an operational group
detached from the front's headquarters, and is provided with documents
and information required to help take over troop control. Moreover, reliable
communications are established from alternate command posts to lower and higher
echelons' headquarters, as well as to cooperating troops and adjacent forces'
command posts.
The rear command post is established in an area that can support the troop
control of front logistical units and installations and that also
ensures the maintenance of reliable communications with the front's main
command post and with the armies' main and rear command posts. The
front's rear command post should also be constantly prepared to take
over as the main command post when the situation requires. The airborne command
post is an auxiliary command post. The signal communications system in the
defensive operation includes the following elements: improved network of
different types of signal communications lines and links and the main and
auxiliary signal centers that are established so as to ensure continuous
communications with the troops and front air army units during the
conduct of different defensive missions. Signal communications should also
provide reliable links with the Armed Forces' General Staff, with adjacent
fronts, and with other coordinating headquarters.
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Organization of Combat Protection and Security of the Front
Troops
The achievement of the goal of the operation depends greatly on the detailed
and all-around combat support, protection, and security of the troops. The
basic types of support and protection are the following:
- reconnaissance;
- protection of the troops and logistical installations against weapons of mass
destruction;
- engineer support;
- chemical support;
- operational concealment;
- radio-electronic warfare;
- hydrometeorological support;
- topogeodesic support;
- logistical support.
All types of support and protection in the defensive operation are organized on
the basis of the front commander's decision for the operation, his
instructions on different types of support, and in accordance with the
instructions of the Armed Forces' General Staff. Support measures of the
operation are organized directly under the guidance of the chief of staff.
Appropriate plans are worked out for each type of support, and orders are
issued to the troops through combat instructions. Here we briefly discuss
reconnaissance, protection of the troops against weapons of mass destruction,
and operational concealment.
Reconnaissance
Organization of reconnaissance includes the following elements:
- planning and issuing missions to troops carrying out reconnaissance tasks;
- allocation of reconnaissance troops and means to accomplish different
missions and the establishment of a reconnaissance troops reserve;
- specification of the method of coordination among various types of
reconnaissance and their coordination with reconnaissance troops and means of
combat and combat support arms;
- organization of communications with reconnaissance units (subunits) and with
reconnaissance groups operating in the rear of the enemy lines;
- collection, assessment, and analysis of reconnaissance information, reporting
them to the commander, and informing the troops and adjacent units;
- assistance for the troops in carrying out reconnaissance tasks and
controlling the conduct of these tasks.
In all conditions of initiating the defense, reconnaissance should detect in a
timely fashion the group of the enemy's troops and means, his concept of the
operation for attack, the axis of his main attack, and the time and method of
operation. In the course of the combat operation without the employment of
nuclear weapons, the important task of reconnaissance is the detection of the
enemy's preparation for the use of nuclear weapons and locating enemy targets
to be engaged by friendly nuclear strikes. The important requirements of
successful accomplishment of reconnaissance missions are the following:
- wise distribution of reconnaissance troops and means; concentration of
efforts of all types of reconnaissance in execution of the most important
tasks;
- effective utilization of reconnaissance troops and means;
- the establishment of reliable communications with them.
All measures to be taken in conducting the reconnaissance are thoroughly
reflected in the reconnaissance plan, which is organized and worked out by the
front's reconnaissance department, with the participation of the air
army's chief of reconnaissance and senior reconnaissance officers of different
arms and services in the planning process. When the front assumes the
defense while in the course of attack, a new reconnaissance plan may not be
worked out due to the lack of time. In this case the standing reconnaissance
plan will be adjusted and developed in accordance with the decision made for
the defensive operation.
Protection Against Mass-Destruction Weapons
Protection of the troops and objectives against mass destruction weapons in the
front defensive operation is organized to avoid losses caused by enemy
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, or to decrease their impact to the
minimum, and also to maintain the combat capability of the main group of the
front's troops and to insure successful accomplishment of the defensive
operation.
The front commander specifies the most important measures on protection
of the troops and rear services' installations during the process of making the
decision for the defense. He also specifies the troops and means to carry out
tasks in this connection. Based on the commander's decision, the front
staff, together with the chiefs of different arms and services, organizes the
implementation of these measures and tasks and controls their execution.
Measures for protection of troops and rear services' installations are
reflected in the plan of the defensive operation and in the plans for the
combat employment of combat arms, as well as in the plans of combat support and
protection. If time permits, a separate plan of protection against weapons of
mass destruction can be worked out.
Operational Concealment (Maskirovka)
Operational concealment is organized and conducted to deceive the enemy on the
concept of the defense and on missions carried out by troops in defense.
Establishment of operational concealment helps to decrease the impact of enemy
nuclear strikes and other strikes and to maintain the combat capabilities of
friendly forces. The principal measures of operational concealment in the
front's defensive operation are the following:
- insuring concealed movement of troops and the secret occupation of defensive
positions;
- establishment of all types of concealment (i.e., optical, radar,
radio-electronic, thermal, magnetic, and acoustic concealment) to hide the main
group of troops and vital targets;
- establishment of deceptive (dummy) operational formations, or parts of them,
as well as a deceptive system of engineer works, such as defensive positions
and belts, switch (alternate) positions, intermediate positions, lines of
deployment, and dummy obstacles;
- establishment of forward defensive positions (general outpost line) to
conceal the actual FEBA;
- simulation of the deployment of rocket (SSM) troops, second-echelon forces,
reserves, command posts, and deceptive concentration areas;
- establishment of dummy airfields and deceptive radio- electronic situations.
The important measures are alternate redeployment of SSM troops and relocation
of second-echelon troops, reserves, command posts, and rocket engineering bases
and organization of operation of SAM artillery units from temporary positions
located away from the area of deployment of the main group of the troops. In
keeping the secrecy of the signal communications system, deployment across the
width and in depth and full utilization of wire links, auxiliary signal
centers, VHF radio stations, and radio relay are of significant importance.
All measures on operational concealment are thoroughly interconnected and
coordinated in terms of objectives, time, and place. The operations department
of the front staff organizes the plan of operational concealment. The
chiefs of the combat support arms and services and the chief of logistics (rear
services) are also called to participate in the planning.
To implement planned measures on operational concealment motorized rifle and
tank divisions, engineer troops, and other combat support arms units and
subunits are allocated special organic means of radio-electronic warfare,
engineer machinery and vehicles, concealment equipment and materiel, various
simulating equipment, and smoke devices. Publications, press, radio,
television, and other means of mass media are utilized. Moreover, combat and
transport vehicles, as well as railroad transport and mobile transportation
means may also be employed. The execution of operational concealment measures
by the troops is controlled by front and army headquarters.
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III. Conduct of the Defensive Operation With the Use of Conventional
Weapons
The front's defensive operation can be initiated in different forms,
depending on the conditions of assuming the defense. In assuming the defense in
the absence of direct contact with the enemy's main force, the combat action of
the troops in the front's defensive operation is initiated by engagement
of the enemy's advancing or concentrating columns that are preparing to attack.
In this case fire attacks are launched against the enemy on distant approaches
to the defense by bomber and fighter-bomber air force units. As the enemy
approaches closer, air forces' strikes are further intensified and supplemented
by artillery fires. The principal enemy targets to be destroyed are: nuclear
delivery means; enemy troops in the main group of forces, particularly antitank
troops, airfields, air defense troops, and means, command posts, and vital
targets in the enemy's rear services' echelon.
In situations when the defense is assumed without having direct contact with
the enemy the action of defending troops and air forces begins with strikes
against enemy delivery means and against troops in assembly areas and in attack
positions, against enemy artillery positions, and against reserves moving from
the rear.
When the front assumes the defense while in the attack or while facing
enemy counterattack, the defensive action may start directly by repelling enemy
ground and air attacks. The difficulties of executing defensive tasks under
such conditions will be due to the fact that defensive action of the troops is
often conducted before the completion of the establishment of defensive groups
and occupation of defensive positions by first-echelon large units in
accordance with the decision made for the defense. In such situations besides
repelling the enemy counterattack, a part of front troops will continue
the attack to seize advantageous lines for defense.
Under all circumstances, the establishment of the defense by the front
proceeds with the detection of likely or actual axes of enemy attack by
reconnaissance, and with measures to reinforce the defense of those axes. For
this purpose the missions of the air forces, artillery, and mobile antitank
reserves, and the method of maneuver by troops and means are adjusted and
confirmed. On dangerous axes the density of antitank weapons and obstacles is
increased, engineer preparation of terrain is improved, and additional obstacle
areas are established in the rear.
When defense is established in advance, a counterpreparatory fire on the enemy
during his preparation for attack can be launched. Counterpreparatory fire is
the delivery of strong fire strikes by the air forces, artillery, mortars, and
tanks against the main group of the enemy. Counterpreparatory fire should be
opened with surprise before the commencement of enemy preparatory air forces
and artillery fire. Success in counterpreparatory fire is achieved by proper
selection of the time of delivery, and the most effective distribution of
targets to be destroyed among air forces, artillery, and other means of
destruction. The main efforts of the troops and means participating in the
conduct of counterpreparatory fires are concentrated on the most important,
accurately-located targets, primarily on enemy nuclear delivery means, tank
force groups, and command posts.
During commencement of the enemy attack, all weapons of defending troops open
fire and intensify it to the maximum capacity. The artillery destroys enemy
tanks by barrage fire and interrupts its combat formation, providing favorable
conditions for this subsequent destruction by antitank weapons.
When the enemy penetrates into the main defense belt, measures are taken to
hold firmly advantageous positions and to stop the further advance of the enemy
into the rear and to the flanks by all types of fire and through launching
counterattacks by second-echelon troops of regiments and divisions, in order to
destroy penetrating enemy troops and to restore interrupted defensive
dispositions.
If the enemy makes a major breakthrough by large forces, launching
counterattacks may not be rational. In such situations, the second-echelon
troops of the divisions hold defensive positions in depth and inflict losses on
the enemy by all kinds of weapons and delay further the advance of the enemy
into the rear.
When the danger of enemy breakthrough into the defensive zone of first-echelon
divisions develops, the army's mobile antitank reserves are moved forward to
threatened axes, and troops and means are moved to such areas from secondary
axes. The first-echelon divisions, along with the army's mobile antitank
reserves, take measures necessary to stop further advance of the enemy and to
inflict heavy casualties on the enemy, which in itself provides favorable
conditions for launching the army's counterattack.
While repelling the enemy's attack, the air forces carry out action with their
maximum power and concentrate the main efforts on the destruction of located
enemy nuclear delivery means and on neutralization of the most dangerous groups
of attacking forces.
The enemy may land airborne assault troops to exploit its attack successfully.
Troops from the second-echelon forces and reserves are detached to destroy
enemy airborne assault troops. A more important role in destroying enemy
airborne assault troops is played by air defense troops and the air forces. The
enemy's airborne assault landing troops should be destroyed quickly in such a
way that they may not be allowed to assemble after landing or to seize vital
objectives and to fortify them.
The units which are left behind the enemy or are encircled by the enemy should
not allow the disintegration of their combat formations through the effective
use of their weapons and by firmly holding their occupied defensive positions
(lines), supplemented by counterattacks. They should absorb as great an amount
of enemy troops by their actions as possible. In support of friendly large
units conducting combat actions from an encircled position, air strikes are
launched while their actions are supported by artillery and their urgent supply
is carried out by air drop operations. Such troops are given permission to
attempt breaking the encirclement only when their actions in the encircled
position prove to be useless.
The armies' counterattacks are launched on the basis of the army commanders'
decisions with the permission of the front commander, and often by his
direct instruction. The counterattacks should be normally supported by
front troops and means, particularly by the front air army. In
case of apparent superiority of the enemy, it might be better not to launch the
armies' counterattacks. In this case, the second-echelon troops of the armies
are employed to repel enemy attack by occupying and holding prepared defensive
lines. To accomplish this task, the front combined arms and special
reserves may be employed as well. During combat actions to hold the main
defensive positions and defensive belts, measures are taken to organize the
defense in operational depth. For this purpose, by the employment of
front and armies' troops and means, engineer preparation of armies' and
front's defensive belts, and defensive lines are maintained. The system
of obstacles are developed on threatened axes, and actions are taken to prepare
some terrain areas, as well as roads, crossings, bridges and other vital
targets for destruction if necessary.
If the enemy makes a breakthrough into the second defensive belt and large
enemy forces penetrate into that area, the most important tasks of the
front's troops will be stop the enemy's advance, to inflict maximum
losses on the enemy, to isolate the enemy's penetrating group from his other
forces, to prevent the movement of enemy's reserves, and subsequently to break
the enemy group into pieces by the actions of the front's first-echelon
forces and reserves, supported by the air forces, and to provide favorable
conditions for the front's counterattack.
The front's counterattack is normally launched to destroy enemy main
forces on the decisive axis. On other axes, fighting the enemy's attacking
troops is conducted by the elements of first-echelon armies. The most favorable
conditions for the front's counterattack will be available when the
front's defending troops maintain their combat capabilities and firmly
hold the defensive positions at the flanks of the penetrating enemy, when the
enemy attack at the frontline is delayed by friendly troops, when the enemy is
suffering heavy losses, and he has committed his immediate reserves.
It is better for the front's counterattack to be launched against both
flanks of the penetrating enemy. This provides the best conditions for getting
to the rear of the enemy. But in some conditions, it may not be feasible to
launch blows on both flanks of the enemy. In such cases the counterattack will
have to be launched against one flank of the enemy. Such a situation may
develop when movement of the troops to the other flank of the enemy is
difficult because of the terrain, or it may take a long period of time.
To launch the front's counterattack, as many troops and means as
possible must be called to participate in the counterattack such as: the
front's second-echelon troops, front combined arms and special
reserves, air armies' units and means, and also a part of first-echelon armies'
troops, in the area in which the front counterattack is conducted.
The counterattack cannot achieve desirable consequences by the use of
insufficient troops. Therefore, as many troops and means should be allocated to
launch the counterattack as are needed to establish decisive superiority over
the enemy and change the situation on the axis of the counterattack. It is
better to employ a larger number of troops, preferably placing tank units and
large units in the first-echelon of counterattacking groups. The attacks should
be launched simultaneously and with surprise against weak areas, particularly
against the enemy's open flanks and rear. The missions of the troops in the
counterattack are assigned for the entire depth of the operation. They can be
reconfirmed and adjusted during the course of the operation.
The immediate mission of counterattacking troops is the destruction of opposing
enemy troops directly located in the counterattacking area, getting to the
flanks and rear of the enemy's main group and providing the conditions for his
destruction. The contents of subsequent missions include complete destruction
of enemy groups which have penetrated into the defense, restoration of the
defense and also destruction of the enemy reserves advancing to the area of
counterattack. In situations when the enemy has committed all of his reserves
by the time the friendly forces launch the counterattack, with the enemy having
suffered heavy losses, his troop control disrupted, his air forces weakened and
air superiority lost; the content of the immediate mission of the
counterattacking group may include advance to the rear of the enemy's main
group, its encirclement, and destruction. In this case the subsequent mission
will be seizure of advantageous areas in enemy territory which can support
initiation of a general offensive by the front. When smaller enemy
forces penetrate into the defense, the counterattacking group is assigned only
one mission, which will include: launching of a crushing and decisive blow
against enemy troops, destruction of enemy troops penetrating into the defense,
restoration of the defense, and establishment of favorable conditions to assume
the offensive. The front's counterattack should normally begin with a
short but strong preparatory fire. The actions of large infantry units
participating in the counterattack should be of a decisive nature and should
continue, without any pause, at a high rate of advance, with maximum power of
the troops in the entire depth of assigned mission.
To achieve quick advance and delivery of decisive blows at the flanks and rear
of enemy groups, the attacking troops should quickly exploit the impact of air
forces strikes and artillery fires, and also should utilize the gaps and
ruptures in the operational formation of enemy forces. During the
counterattack, all measures should be taken to foil or weaken any counteraction
taken by the enemy against the counterattack. Moreover, actions should be taken
to effectively cover the exposed flanks of counterattacking troops. For this
purpose, reconnaissance is further activated and air strikes are launched
against the enemy, particularly against its approaching reserves. At the
flanks, attacking large units (divisions), mobile antitank reserves, and mobile
obstacle detachments are deployed and engineer obstacles are installed.
The counterattack can also be launched under conditions when the enemy's
penetrating group is not yet stopped, but continues to attack (advance). In
such a situation the actions of opposing sides will have the nature of a
meeting engagement. During a counterattack, the front commander
intensifies the efforts of the counterattacking group through the use of air
strikes and artillery fires, through the commitment of second-echelon troops
and reserves, and also by assigning large units (divisions) defending at the
flanks of the counterattacking group to initiate the attack. This process is
conducted in accordance with developments in the situation.
After the destruction of the enemy group which has penetrated into the defense,
the previous defensive situation is restored and the front troops should
be ready to repel the enemy's repeated attacks. Therefore, the troops are
regrouped so that a deep operational formation is reestablished and reserves
are newly constituted. In circumstances when the enemy intensifies the power of
his attacks and continues to exploit his attack into the depth of the defense
while the front troops suffer heavy losses, the counterattack of the
front's second-echelon troops and reserves may not seem advisable. In
this case it will be better for the front's available reserves to be
employed to inflict losses on the enemy from defensive positions. The
front's counterattack will be launched later, after it is reinforced by
the supreme commander's reserves.
The front defensive operation ends when the front troops succeed
in repelling the attack of the enemy's main forces and they destroy enemy
troops which have penetrated into the defense and hold the occupied defensive
positions. It must be noted that the enemy can initiate the employment of
nuclear weapons at any time. Therefore taking continuous measures which may
ensure constant readiness of the front troops to assume operations with the
employment of nuclear weapons, primarily the readiness of rocket troops and air
forces to launch the initial nuclear strike, is of significant importance. To
serve this purpose, the rocket units to be called for launching the initial
nuclear strike should be located in their deployment areas along with rockets
and launching pads. Their maneuver to alternate positions is conducted in such
a way that at the likely time of initiation of the employment of nuclear
weapons, all or the major part of launching pads are ready to launch nuclear
strikes. As the degrees of the threat of the employment of nuclear weapons by
the enemy develops, the rocket troops are brought up to a higher state of
readiness in a timely manner.
In situations when the threat of the enemy's use of nuclear weapons develops
the air force continues to locate and destroy the enemy's nuclear means by its
conventional weapons. In such situations a part of the bomber and
fighter-bomber air forces units, on the basis of the front commander's
decision, are placed in a stand-by state in airfields while they are armed with
nuclear bombs. The front's troops should be ready constantly to take actions
for protection against of the enemy's mass destructive weapons (nuclear). In
the course of the defensive operation, the plan of initial nuclear strike
should be reconfirmed from time to time, so that minimum time is spent while
front troops assume combat actions with the use of nuclear weapons. For
this purpose, it is necessary to constantly follow enemy targets to be
destroyed, particularly the enemy's nuclear weapons and the enemy's group of
troops. Moreover, the missions of rocket troops and air forces in initial
nuclear strike are confirmed and necessary changes are made in the plan of
initial nuclear strike.
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IV. Conduct of Defensive Operations with the Use of Nuclear Weapons
The action of front's troops in the defensive operation with the
employment of nuclear weapons is directed toward foiling the enemy's organized
attack, or weakening the group of enemy troops to the maximum. In such
situations, as many losses as possible are inflicted on the enemy's nuclear
delivery means and on the main group of the enemy forces through the use of
nuclear weapons and conventional means.
When the enemy initiates the offensive, his attacks are repelled in front of
the FEBA by nuclear and conventional weapons, and if the enemy penetrates into
the defense, his attacks are repelled by nuclear strikes and by fires of
conventional weapons, as well as by counterattacks conducted by second-echelon
troops and reserves.
When the front assumes the defense during the course of an attack, the
defensive operation may begin directly by repelling the enemy's attacks, and by
fortification of seized objectives and areas. Meanwhile, the defensive group of
troops and fire systems are established in accordance with the commander's
decision; nuclear strikes are prepared and launched; defensive positions and
lines are prepared; antitank obstacles, destructions and barriers are
established on the axes of the enemy's attack; and measures are taken to
eliminate the impact of enemy nuclear strikes.
The most difficult and complicated situation may be created when the enemy
launches surprise nuclear strikes against front's troops. In this case,
the primary task will be to restore the combat capability of defending troops
and defensive belts and to launch nuclear strikes against the enemy by all
operational- tactical nuclear rocket launching pads and by the air army units.
Meanwhile, other actions are taken to repel the enemy's ground and air attacks
by all available weapons and means.
To prevent the advance of the enemy's attacking group and to hold favorable
terrain, lines, and areas motorized rifle and tank divisions which have
maintained their combat capabilities are quickly moved to the vital axes. In
certain situations, during the movement of the divisions to their specified
areas, meeting engagements may occur with enemy attacking units trying to
exploit the consequences of nuclear strikes and to make it difficult for
friendly forces to take up organized defense on advantageous lines. Under such
circumstances, heavy losses are inflicted through repeated use of nuclear and
conventional weapons while front motorized infantry and tank troops
launch quick and powerful blows against the attacking enemy in order to get
into specified areas and lines for defense.
Depending on the successful location of the enemy's strong and dangerous
groups, additional nuclear strikes by front and army means are launched
against them. The enemy's nuclear delivery means, groups of his tank troops and
his vital command posts are destroyed in first priority. In case of
availability of nuclear weapons, nuclear strikes are also delivered on the
enemy's approaching reserves, as well as on airfields, crossings, on the
enemy's communications routes, and on other targets.
The enemy may attempt to break through quickly the resistance of the
front's first-echelon troops and to penetrate through the unoccupied
areas into the operational rear. To avoid such enemy action, a part of armies'
reserves or even front's reserves should be employed to establish
quickly and secretly defensive positions on advantageous lines on the axes
threatened by the enemy. For this purpose, first the mobile antitank reserves
and mobile obstacle detachment are moved, and engineer obstacles are installed
on the threatened axes.
The main efforts of the front's forces are concentrated on quick and
decisive destruction of attacking enemy troops in the defensive zones of
first-echelon divisions. This is insured by the use of nuclear strikes and
fires of conventional weapons, as well as through firm holding of defensive
lines on the axes of the enemy's attacks and also by the conduct of surprise
counterattacks.
When the operation is conducted with the employment of nuclear weapons, the
situation will normally be quickly changing on the ground and in the air. On
one axis they might not only succeed in penetrating into the defensive zone of
first-echelon divisions, but the enemy might make a breakthrough up to the
entire operational depth, while on another axis the enemy may only succeed to
penetrate into the defense of the first-echelon troops. Still, on some
individual axes, the enemy's attack might be stopped directly in front of the
FEBA. Generally the troops will be engaged in a series of scattered defensive
combat. Under such circumstances, the front and army commanders are
required to show resourcefulness and exceptional artfulness in effective troop
control and be in constant coordination with the operations of all combat arms
for the joint accomplishment of the combat mission.
The defending troops should limit and contain enemy maneuvers through firm
defense of vital lines and through the use of engineer obstacles to force the
enemy to attack on the axes which are advantageous for defending troops.
Subsequently, they should launch powerful nuclear strikes and use conventional
weapons, inflicting decisive losses on the enemy. When the enemy succeeds in
making a breakthrough on a number of axes, the threat of penetration into the
operational rear arises. The main efforts of the front means,
particularly those of nuclear weapons, should be concentrated against the
enemy's main grouping, and not on other areas where the enemy is attacking with
relatively fewer troops. Fighting with the enemy can be conducted by the troops
and means of the front's first-echelon armies. Only after the
destruction of the enemy's main grouping can the front's means be
shifted to other axes.
In the course of defensive combat the commanders and staffs of all echelons
constantly should focus their attention on the protection of troops from the
enemy's nuclear and chemical weapons, and on eliminating the impact of such
weapons. The first priority measures are for the restoration of the combat
capabilities of troops, of troop control, and of interrupted coordination
systems on the axis of the enemy's main attack. To restore combat capabilities
of the first-echelon armies operating on important axes, front reserves
and large units from the axes not seriously threatened are moved to the
affected area and employed for that purpose.
In the operation with employment of nuclear weapons the front's
counterblow is better launched against both flanks of the enemy's grouping
which has penetrated into the defense. In such situations the counterblow can
be launched from the front (as a frontal blow) to break up enemy groupings into
pieces, subsequently destroying them individually.
Such a counterblow can be used when there is a sufficient number of nuclear
weapons in the front, and when the approach of the front's
second-echelon troops and reserves to the flanks of the enemy's grouping is
difficult due to terrain condition or time factor. In some cases the
counterblow can be launched by part of the troops from the flank while another
part counterattacks from the front.
In conducting the front's counterblow rocket troops, air armies,
second-echelon troops, front's reserves, as well as parts of the
first-echelon armies are called to participate. In the process of establishing
the grouping of forces for the counterblow it must be considered that the
first-echelon of such a grouping must be strong and as many tank units as
possible should be included in the first-echelon to exploit quickly the result
of nuclear strikes.
The principal form of troop action during the counterblow is the deployment of
large units, units from the line of march, and initiation of the blow (attack)
from the move. It must be noted that this form of action requires that certain
measures are taken in advance such as: extension and/or establishment of
movement routes and deployment lines; covering of the deployment of
counterblowing grouping against the enemy's air strikes; tank attacks; and
allocation of necessary forces with the means to inflict losses on the enemy in
the sectors of counterblow.
The success of a counterblow is broadly determined by the number and wise
employment of nuclear rounds. In the course of the defensive operation nuclear
rounds must be used sparingly so that the front achieves the capability
to inflict decisive losses on the enemy just before the initiation of the
counterblow. The counterblow should be initiated by launching massive nuclear
strikes on enemy forces which have penetrated into the defense and primarily on
the enemy's nuclear means, armored troops, command posts, and enemy's immediate
reserves. The counterblow also is initiated by artillery preparatory fire.
During the conduct of the counterblow, airborne assault units may be landed by
helicopters to seize and destroy nuclear delivery means, command posts,
communication centers, and to seize key areas (lines) on the routes of movement
of the enemy reserves.
The expansion (reinforcement) of efforts during the counterblow are primarily
effected by repeated nuclear and conventional weapons strikes, commitment of
second-echelon troops and reserves of the counterattacking groupings and the
employment of front reserves as well as by initiation of attack by
forces defending the flanks of counterattacking grouping.
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