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SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
FRONT OPERATIONS

 

CHAPTER II-3


 

Front Defensive Operations

 
 

Front defensive operations are conducted within the framework of strategic operations in the TSMA, and they are an integrated part of the strategic operation. The role and position of a front defensive operation in strategic operations is determined by many factors, of which the most important are: the importance and conditions of the TSMA; the concept of strategic operation and the phase in which the front takes up the defense; the significance of the directions to be defended by the front and the conditions of coordination with them; the composition and character of enemy action; the chemical, nuclear, and biological situation; and terrain conditions and other factors.

 
 

I. General Principles of Front Defensive Operations

Conditions and Circumstances for Assuming the Defense

In modern warfare front defensive operations are a temporary form of combat action. Defense is assumed when, due to inadequate troops and means, offensive action is not possible or, considering operational and strategic concepts and other factors, it is not desirable.

Initiation of defensive operations by the front can be assumed prior to the outbreak of war, at the beginning of war, and also in the course of military operations. Prior to the commencement of war, the front may assume the defense on one axis to repel the invasion of superior enemy forces. By the commencement of war, the need to commit the front into the defense is felt when it has suffered heavy casualties due to enemy nuclear attacks, while the enemy still maintains the capabilities to attack. This may happen in case of enemy surprise nuclear attacks and also in case of a mutual nuclear meeting engagement. At the beginning of a war conducted without the employment of nuclear weapons, the possibility of the front assuming the defense cannot be ruled out when the enemy attacks with superior forces or in case the friendly forces fail to achieve success in a meeting engagement in border areas.

In the course of offensive operations the front may take up the defense to repel a planned or already-initiated enemy counterattack or counteroffensive, when continuation of attack by the front does not serve the establishment of the required superiority in troops and means over the enemy to destroy its attacking grouping in a meeting engagement.

At the end of offensive operations, depending on the concept of the supreme command, the front may assume the defense at the final line reached by its troops and conduct defensive operations until the need for conducting subsequent offensive operations on that particular axis should arise. In World War II, in the closing phase of the war, some fronts shifted to the defense for several months.
In modern times while conducting offensive operations, the front may also assume the defense to cover an exposed flank of a strategic grouping of attacking forces in the TSMA or to repel the attacks of the enemy's large encircled or blockaded groupings attempting to break through the encirclement. While the duration of defensive operations will be greatly decreased, such possibilities are not out of the question.

Defensive operations may also be assumed when the defending forces are in parity with those of the enemy or even superior to the opposing troops. In such cases the aim of the defense will be to inflict casualties on the enemy by defensive action, followed by initiation of an attack against an already-exhausted enemy in the manner of the operation conducted in the Kursk salient in 1943. In modern conditions, without the employment of nuclear weapons, such a development cannot be excluded.

As in the past war, nowadays assuming the defense may be initiated in the presence of close contact or without contact with enemy main forces. These different conditions bear decisive impact on the preparations of defensive operations. The front's defensive operation on the important axis of the Western TSMA usually constitutes a component part of strategic offensive operations, and it is conducted in support of the attack by the main grouping of friendly forces.

As discussed above, the front may assume the defense under different circumstances. The aim of the operation and the missions of front troops, as well as the method of preparation and conduct of the defensive operation, are determined in accordance with the actual circumstances.

 
 

The Aim of the Front's Defensive Operation

The aim of the front defensive operation is the final outcome that should be achieved by the front troops through defensive action. The aim of a defensive operation is specified by the supreme commander (commander in chief) and depends on the following factors:
- concept and missions of strategic operations in the TSMA;
- significance of the axis to be defended;
- availability of, and time for, receiving nuclear rounds;
- combat missions of adjacent units and conditions of coordination with them;
- likelihood of enemy ground and air attacks.

Moreover, the capabilities of strategic nuclear means to be planned and employed in the front's area are also taken into account. In World War II the aims of the front's defensive operations varied. At the initial stage of that war the fronts established the defense in order to prevent enemy penetration on important axes leading to industrial, administrative, and political centers, and targets and lines of strategic significance in order to gain time for concentration, build-up, and deployment of reserves appointed to launch counterattacks and initiate the counteroffensive. Later on, with the equipping of Soviet forces with artillery and tanks, along with larger concentrations of troops and means in defense, and also with the development of general changes in strategic capabilities and status of fronts, the aims of defensive operations also changed. Therefore, when defensive operations were assumed in the course of a friendly strategic offensive, their aims were: holding the lines and areas seized by attack, inflicting casualties on the enemy, and gaining time for preparation of the offensive on that axis or other axes (such as the operations of the Don and Stalingrad fronts in 1942).
In modern conditions, due to the availability of nuclear weapons, the enhancement of the firepower of conventional weapons, particularly antitank weapons, and the intensification of the striking power and maneuver capabilities of the troops, the capabilities of defending forces are greatly increased. Therefore, the aim of the front's defensive operation is to foil an enemy prepared attack during concentration and deployment of the front's striking grouping.

Meanwhile, under most conditions, the aim of defensive operations will be to repel enemy attack, to inflict casualties on the enemy, and to retain important lines and vital areas. The aim of defensive operations may also include the establishment of favorable conditions for subsequent offensive operations, if such an operation is intended.

In the course of offensive operations, upon reaching the seashores, the aim of the defensive operation will be to repel the landing of enemy seaborne and airborne assault troops and to destroy them once they have landed. The aim of the front's defensive operation at the beginning of the war is to prevent enemy invasion of friendly territory, to hold occupied lines at the border area, and to provide favorable conditions for the deployment of strategic groupings of friendly forces and their organized commitment into combat.

 
 

Missions and Combat Compositions of the Front

The missions of the troops, the accomplishment of which can ensure the achievement of the aim of the defensive operation, could be the following:
- inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy along the approaches leading to defended areas;
- repelling the attack of enemy forces, including enemy air attacks, and holding the occupied positions;
- destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into defensive areas;
- destruction of enemy airborne assault troops.

In some individual cases, with the employment of nuclear weapons, the aim of a defensive operation can be achieved through the accomplishment of a single mission, i.e., inflicting decisive casualties on enemy forces during their concentration or their deployment in attack positions, to such an extent that the enemy becomes unable to initiate the attack without receiving reinforcements and additional means, or the enemy may cancel his intention to attack.

To achieve the aim of defensive operations and to accomplish the specified missions in the operation, the commander in chief specifies the combat composition of the front, which may comprise three to four armies, or two to three armies, one to two army corps, an air army, one rocket (SSM) brigade, as well as one to three motorized rifle or tank divisions as the front reserve. The above-mentioned composition of the front will include some 12 to 20 motorized rifle and tank divisions, three to four air forces' divisions, and three to four separate air forces' regiments. When defending seacoasts, naval units, particularly naval bases and coastal rocket (artillery) units, are placed under the operational command of the front. The front is assigned a defensive area. The width of such an area generally depends on the composition of the front, the grouping of enemy forces and their expected attacks, and also on the nature of the TSMA and terrain conditions. In the Western TSMA, the width of the front's defensive area might be 350 to 400 km, while in other theaters it can be larger.

 
 

Characteristics of Modern Defensive Operations

The front's defensive operation includes: strikes of nuclear weapons that are mutually coordinated in terms of aim, time, and place; combat action of front troops conducted in the framework of a unified plan, in accordance with the concept of the strategic operation in the theater; and the employment of the means of the supreme command in support of the front to repel the attack of the enemy and to hold the lines occupied.

In modern times the basis of the defense is constituted by the following:
- nuclear strikes coordinated with the fire plan of other weapons (when defense is conducted without the employment of nuclear weapons, the firepower of conventional weapons will be of prime importance);
- a reliable air defense system and protection of the troops and rear services' installations against enemy weapons of mass destruction;
- firm resistance of the troops in holding vital lines and objectives;
- wide maneuvers by troops and means;
- decisive counterattacks.

The nature and characteristics of modern defensive operations are fundamentally different from defensive operations conducted in World War II. The reason is mainly the availability of nuclear weapons, as well as the development of the striking and maneuvering powers of the troops and their equipment with various combat vehicles and other hardware.

The increased capabilities of defending troops in delivering nuclear strikes against the enemy at greater depths provides chances to destroy enemy nuclear delivery means and to inflict heavy casualties on the enemy groups of troops, which may decrease or even eliminate the enemy's superiority in troops and means. Meanwhile, the enemy will also have sufficient numbers of nuclear weapons capable of inflicting heavy casualties on defending troops during the attack. This requires that the enemy should be overtaken in launching nuclear attacks when the operation is conducted with the employment of nuclear weapons. By doing so the defending forces may cause heavy losses to the enemy through the use of nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapons are used when enemy troops are located in open areas in concentrated formations and groups and when they are at such a distance from defensive areas that they may be effectively engaged while ensuring the safety and protection of friendly troops.

The capability of the enemy in massive employment of nuclear weapons against defending forces increases the importance of wise exploitation of the terrain and the significance of quick construction of engineer works and fortifications, as well as the importance of expert establishment of defensive dispositions and deception of the enemy about the location and likely action of friendly troops. The enemy should be deceived through the establishment of a system of alternate (reserve) and deceptive (dummy) defensive positions and areas of troop concentration, and also by applying operational concealment measures and other actions. This may greatly decrease the effectiveness of the employment of nuclear weapons by the enemy.

However, it is not always possible to avoid the casualties and losses caused by enemy nuclear attacks. Therefore, defending forces are inevitably forced to take a wide range of complicated measures to eliminate the impact of the enemy's nuclear attack. In some cases this should be done simultaneously while conducting combat actions to repel enemy ground and air attacks. Under such circumstances measures must be promptly taken to restore interrupted troop control, to evacuate vehicles and equipment from the areas of destruction, and to take a number of other necessary actions such as: organizing medical aid to personnel; maneuver of troops and means to seal off the gaps created by enemy nuclear strikes; extinguishing fires and removing large obstacles, and readjustment of the mission of the troops, particularly those of the first-echelon troops, rocket (SSM), and air defense troops. Following the initial enemy nuclear strike considerable readjustment and changes in actual front defensive dispositions, and on some axes, establishment of new defensive lines through the commitment of front and supreme command reserves, may become necessary.

 
 

In defensive operations prepared during peacetime, or while assuming defensive operations in the course of the attack without the employment of nuclear weapons, the grouping of front defending troops should comply with the conditions of combat operations with or without the use of nuclear weapons. Therefore, the following points are taken into consideration, and actions are taken accordingly:
1. The width of the defensive zone for first-echelon large units (divisions) of the armies operating on likely axes of enemy main attack should be determined in such a way that, on the one hand, it ensures the dispersion of the troops, in order to protect them from enemy nuclear attacks, and on the other hand, it provides for possibilities of concentrating the required density of conventional means for successful defensive action without the use of nuclear weapons. As the outcome of calculations suggest, the width of division defensive areas should be 15 to 20 km. On secondary axes this can be 30 km or more.
2. While operating with the use of nuclear weapons, additional defensive positions in the rear of the first defensive belt should be prepared to be occupied by reserves moving from the rear in order to cover and block the gaps created as a result of enemy nuclear attacks.
3. The reinforcement of first-echelon troops during the employment of nuclear weapons is basically achieved through the commitment of troops and means deployed in the rear. Therefore, strong reserves and second-echelon troops should be retained, and they must be deployed on the likely axes of enemy attack, so that they can move in the shortest possible time to reinforce the first-echelon troops and also launch heavy counterattacks along such axes.
4. In case of employment of nuclear weapons counterattacks are planned to be launched against the flanks and rear of enemy forces that have penetrated into the defensive area, along with the exploitation of the impact of friendly nuclear strikes, which are normally launched against the main grouping of enemy penetrating forces.

Along with the development of capabilities to defend, the role of active defense, greatly increased in modern times, includes delivering nuclear strikes and conventional weapons fire against the enemy, and wide maneuvers by troops, means, fires, and counterattacks. The most striking indicator of the activeness of defense is the counterattack.

The most important condition that serves the purpose of operating with activeness is firm holding and retention of key areas and lines on the axes of enemy attack. This provides favorable conditions for conducting the maneuver of troops and means. It also supports the most effective use of nuclear and all other types of weapons, contains the maneuver of an attacking enemy, helps to force the enemy troops to concentrate in individual areas, where they can be hit by decisive strikes of defending troops, and facilitates the piecemeal destruction of enemy troops.

When defending on a wide front, maneuver is of particular importance. In such conditions the availability of transport helicopters for quick movement of motorized rifle, antitank, combat engineer, and other units, and also for transportation of engineer mines, ammunition, and other supplies and equipment greatly helps the conduct of rapid maneuvers. The construction of engineer works and fortifications in a short time is facilitated through the employment of combat engineer equipment and machinery capable of accomplishing construction of engineer works with speed and efficiency.

Due to the introduction of increased numbers of enemy tactical aircraft capable of using nuclear and conventional weapons, air defense has become particularly important in protecting the troops and rear services' targets against enemy air attacks and providing sufficient cover for personnel and combat equipment against enemy attempts to inflict heavy losses on them.

Equipping troops with enormous numbers of tanks and other armored vehicles has greatly enhanced the importance of antitank defense, which now constitutes the basic nature of combat actions. Antitank defense is established on all likely axes of enemy tank attacks, and it is concentrated on the likely axis of enemy main attack.

The equipment of troops with various electronic means has increased the importance of radio-electronic warfare. The nature of radio-electronic warfare includes actions to jam enemy electronic systems and means, and protection of friendly forces against enemy electronic reconnaissance, as well as against its jamming and its weapons equipped with automatic guidance systems. In defensive operations conducted without the employment of nuclear weapons ensuring the constant readiness of the troops to pass over to operations with the use of nuclear weapons is of particular importance. Such a state of readiness should enable the friendly forces to deliver timely massive nuclear strikes against the enemy in order to: foil his nuclear attacks, inflict heavy losses on his ground and air forces, and ensure the exploitation of the impact of nuclear strikes by friendly troops to overcome enemy destruction through launching army and front counterblows, or through initiation of attack by all front troops.

To sum up, the very nature and character of modern defense set the requirements of conducting such operations. The requirements demand that the defense must be: firm, active, nuclear resistant, tank resistant, air forces resistant, and able to resist enemy nuclear, chemical, air forces, and artillery attacks. It should also be able to stand up against massive enemy tank and infantry attacks, and should not allow the landing and combat operation of enemy airborne and air mobile assault troops. Finally, it should be capable of destroying the enemy troops that have penetrated the defensive area.

 
 

II. Preparation of Defensive Operations

Content and Method of Preparation for Defensive Operations- -Front Staff and Command Procedures

The success of defensive operations depends primarily on its detailed, through preparation. Preparation for defensive operations comprises planning and taking required measures on organization of the operation by the commander, staff, and chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, as well as by party and political organizations, plus measures concerning the organization of staff procedures and the action of combat troops and logistic echelons, in accordance with the decisions made by the front commander. The principal measures concerning preparations for defensive operations are the following:
- making the decision;
- issuing missions to the troops;
- planning the operation;
- regrouping and replacing troops if required;
- occupying specified defensive areas by troops;
- organizing air defense;
- organizing counterbombardment, i.e., counterpreparatory fire (if planned to be conducted in defensive operation);
- planning and preparing the army's and front's counterblows;
- organizing coordination; preparing engineer works;
- organizing and conducting party and political indoctrination;
- organizing all-around support of the troops;
- organizing troop control;
- establishing and deploying supplies and stores.

The methods and sequence of accomplishing the above-mentioned actions, as well as the actions of the commander and staff, depend on the conditions of the situation under which the operation is prepared. In this connection the following factors are significant:
- the time available for the establishment of defensive groups of troops and for preparation of defensive engineer fortifications and other constructions. This will be different when assuming defense without having close contact with the enemy than it would be when taking up the defensive in the course of an enemy-initiated attack;
- types of weapons (nuclear or conventional) to be employed in the operation;
- status, operational situation, and nature of combat actions of friendly and enemy troops at the time of receiving the defensive mission from the front;
- availability of nuclear and conventional weapons and reserves of supplies and stores.

In preparing the operation prior to the outbreak of war the front will have plenty of time at its disposal. But in such a case, only those actions are taken in advance that can be conducted in secrecy, so that the security of the concept of operations is not jeopardized, and the enemy gets the wrong impression about the actual plans of friendly forces. Such measures can be itemized as follows:
- making the decision and planning the operation;
- planning the movement of troops to specified areas and planning the engineer preparation of the terrain;
- organization of the method of coordination;
- organization of all types of support;
- troop control.

Practically, measures connected with the movement of the troops to occupy defensive areas and also with engineer preparation of terrain can usually be taken at the time of crisis with the permission of the armed forces' general staff. Only the reconnaissance of defensive areas and the areas of deployment of troops, construction of some roads and bridges, collection and concealment of supplies, establishment of protected command posts, and installment of some communications lines and signal centers can be carried out in advance.

In preparing for defensive operations in peacetime the front (military district, group of forces) commander and staff will have sufficient time to analyze the mission in more detail, and to evaluate and assess all matters and factors affecting the decision in a rational fashion in order to make reasonable and detailed calculations. In such cases the chiefs of arms and services increasingly contribute in the process of making the decision and in overall command and staff procedures. Moreover, planning the operation, and the movement of troops to specified defensive areas, plus the organization of support, is accomplished by the front staff in more detail, along with substantiated calculations.

In order to ensure secrecy a limited number of responsible members of the front's field troop control personnel are called to resolve questions connected with the preparation of the operation. The documents related to the planning of the armies' operations may also be prepared at the front (military district or group of forces) headquarters.

To serve this purpose based on the permission of the armed forces' general staff, the operational group of armies' staff officers, led by army commanders, are called to the front headquarters. Practical actions of the front (army) commanders, on organization of defense made within the operational formations (armies) and large units (divisions), start by receiving instructions to move front troops to specified defensive areas. During this phase, the missions of the troops are reconfirmed, coordination (on the map, on terrain models, or directly on the terrain) is organized, a fire system is established, engineer construction and fortifications are made, and all other questions concerning the preparation of the operation are resolved. The front and army staffs and their chiefs of arms and services control the execution of instructions, while extending assistance to subordinates in their assigned missions.

Resolving questions regarding preparation of operations in peacetime, prior to the arrival of enemy forces to border areas, is a very difficult task, because advance determination of the enemy's likely concept of operation is a tremendously complicated process. As the enemy starts moving toward the international borders, the possibilities of disclosing his likely intentions and concept of operation may increase. Therefore, readjustment of some elements of the commander's decision, as well as changes in grouping and missions of the troops, fire plan, engineer obstacles, and in the methods of coordination, may become necessary.

Preparation of defensive operations in a situation in which the front takes up the defense while conducting offensive operations is different from the preparation of defensive operations conducted prior to the outbreak of war. The difference is due to the fact that, in the former case, limited time will be available for organizing the defense by commanders and staffs and for practical actions of the troops to prepare for the operation. In this case the sequence of preparations will be such that parallel actions will be carried out at different echelons, while allocating the maximum amount of time to the troops for taking practical measures on preparation for defense and carrying out their tasks in accordance with the decision of the front commander.

When friendly troops take up the defense against expected enemy preplanned counterattacks, i.e., in the absence of close contact with the counterattacking enemy, or when the troops assume the defense at the end of an offensive operation, the staffs and the troops will have relatively more time for the preparation of defensive operations. On receiving the order to defend, the commander makes the decision on a map in which he primarily specifies the required defensive group of the front's troops and the method of establishment of such a group in the process of changing from offensive to defensive action. The commander adjusts the missions of the troops for the phase of their advance, as a continuation of attack to an anticipated defensive line, so that they reach the line where they are to assume the defense in such a way that they comply with the planned concept of operation for defense. This method is effective only when the group of troops quickly assumes the defense in the closing phase of the attack. This may greatly decrease the amount of time required to accomplish necessary tasks in support of preparing the defense. In such cases, the decision is made in the shortest possible time. The front staff and chiefs of arms and services are fully briefed on assigned missions, prepare information on the situation and capabilities of friendly troops, and forward their suggestions on the employment of their arms and services. The front commander will usually listen only to suggestions on such matters that are of special interest to him.

When the troops pass over to the defense during the attack of superior enemy forces, or when friendly troops are forced to take up the defense following their failure to achieve success in a meeting engagement, the preparation of defensive operations develops in the course of combat action simultaneously with attempts to repel enemy ground and air attacks primarily to stabilize the situation of first-echelon troops on favorable lines against the enemy striking group.

The nature of actions taken by the front commander and staff in such conditions is such that the decision for operations is made successively for different axes. The decision-making process in such situations begins on the main axis with issuance of missions to troops operating on that axis. First the main issues connected with the aim of holding favorable lines, and the establishment of defensive groups of the troops are resolved. Subsequently, matters related to coordination of the troops are organized or confirmed, the counterattack and troop control are planned and prepared, and the engineer preparation of terrain is further improved. All measures concerning preparation of the operation are taken simultaneously at different echelons.

In situations in which front troops suffer heavy casualties from massive enemy nuclear strikes, either at the beginning of military actions or in the course of friendly forces' offensive operations started with the use of nuclear weapons, the preparation for defensive operations will be conducted in the face of great difficulties and will be carried out under complicated conditions. Time will be limited for the accomplishment of a large number of actions to prepare the defensive operation. In such situations, troops should first be evacuated from the areas of intense radiation, and prompt and urgent measures should be taken to assist casualties. Moreover, favorable lines on vital axes are selected for defense, and the troops allocated to form the first-echelon of the front are quickly designated and missions are assigned to rocket (SSM) troops, air forces and artillery to deliver nuclear and fire strikes on the enemy's nuclear delivery means and strongest groups. Then, on the basis of the decision made for defensive operations, the front staff organizes the plan for restoring the combat capabilities of the troops and the elimination of the impact of enemy nuclear attacks.

As discussed above, the nature of actions in preparation of an operation, the sequence of their execution, and the method of command and staff procedures, will be different in various situations. Under all circumstances, constant readiness of the troops to repel ground and air attacks of the enemy, detailed assessment and wise use of terrain, as well as timely and organized holding and preparation of defense, should be ensured. In addition to actions taken by the front commander and staff on organization of the defense (such as making the decision, planning the operation, organization of coordination and all types of support) in all conditions, the passing over to the defense should be deeply and comprehensively contemplated and must be harmonized with the actual situation and with anticipation of the development of combat action, no matter how much these thoughts are reflected in planning and combat documents.

When the time is available, a calendar plan for preparation of the operation is worked out to include actions to be taken by the commander and staff, chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, party and political organizations, and also those taken by the troops. This plan also reflects the time of accomplishment and the people responsible for the execution of planned actions. In the course of preparation of operations, the plan is further developed and confirmed, while its implementation is controlled by the staff.

 
 

Making the Decision and the Contents of the Decision

During the analysis of aims and missions, the commander should accurately determine: the role of the front in strategic operations and its specified missions in defense; the relationship between the missions of the front and those assigned to adjacent fronts; and the extent of contribution of strategic means and PVO troops to the accomplishment of the missions assigned to the front and the method of coordination with them. As deductions from the mission analysis, the front commander should determine: What actions should be taken immediately or in a short time; what measures should be taken by the staff and the chief of combat and combat support arms and services on preparation of the operation; and what instructions should be issued to the troops?

The estimate of the situation is the process of studying and analyzing of information on enemy and friendly forces, adjacent units, and the terrain; assessment of the radioactive, chemical, bacteriological, and radio-electronic situation; analysis of national structure and class composition of the population in the operational area, their political thinking and their attitude toward friendly forces; assessment of the economic situation in combat operation areas and also the hydrometeorological situation, the season, and the duration of daylight and night. As a result of the estimate of the situation, the front commander determines the following points:
- likely concept and character of enemy operation; enemy capabilities to use nuclear and chemical weapons, and essential elements of reconnaissance, (principal tasks of reconnaissance); relative balance of forces along the likely axes of enemy's blows; what grouping of the forces should be formed and at what time; the measures to be taken on restoring the combat capabilities of the troops in case they are exposed to enemy nuclear attacks.
- capabilities of the front to attempt the following actions: to foil the enemy's attack or to weaken its strikes through the use of nuclear or conventional weapons during the enemy's movement along the approaches leading to the defense, to repel enemy ground and air attacks; and to destroy enemy troops that have penetrated into defensive areas.
- the axis where the main effort of the front is concentrated and terrain features, the retention of which insures the overall firmness and integrity of the defense.
- the main lines for deployment of the troops and for the establishment of defensive areas (belts) of the army's first and second-echelon large units (divisions); the areas and lines of the front's second-echelon troops and reserves; fire position areas for surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missiles; the direction of maneuver of troops and means in the course of the operation; and the deployment areas of command posts.

The front commander specifies the following points in his decision for a defensive operation:
- the concept of the operation;
- the missions of nuclear weapons;
- the missions of first-echelon armies;
- the missions of second-echelon armies;
- the missions of the combined arms reserve;
- the missions of rocket troops and artillery;
- the missions of air forces;
- the missions of air defense troops;
- the missions of engineer and chemical troops;
- composition and missions of mobile antitank reserve and mobile obstacles detachment;
- the time of occupation of defensive positions by the troops and the time of readiness of the fire system;
- the nature and gradual sequence of accomplishment of engineer works;
- organization of troop control.

In the concept of operation, the following points are specified:
- grouping of enemy forces, their likely axes of attack, and the time of initiation of attack by an enemy group of forces;
- where, when, by what means (with or without the employment of nuclear weapons), and in what forms and methods actions are taken to inflict losses on the enemy and to foil or repel its attack;
- axes and areas where the main efforts of the front are concentrated;
- operational formation (disposition) of the troops and the form of establishment of defensive areas (belts).

In working out the concept of operations the most favorable form of the employment of front forces and means to accomplish assigned missions and to achieve the aim of the operation, primarily the method of use of nuclear weapons, are selected. The front commander specifics in which phase of defensive combat decisive casualties should be inflicted on the enemy, and accordingly, when the bulk of nuclear rounds allocated to the front's defensive operation should be used, i.e., prior to the initiation of an enemy attack, while repelling the attack, or during the conduct of counterattacks against the enemy. In resolving these questions the commander takes the following factors into close consideration: availability and time of receiving nuclear rounds; probable effectiveness of nuclear strikes in different situations of friendly troops and enemy targets (the effectiveness of such strikes would not be the same in different situations, such as prior to the initiation of enemy attack and in the course of enemy attacks); and the possibilities of timely determination of exact coordinates of the targets. When assuming the defense prior to the outbreak of war and also in situations in which the front takes up the defense in the course of its offensive operations without the use of nuclear weapons, in determining the grouping of the troops, their decisive concentration on the most likely axes of the attack of enemy main forces, and the integrity of the defense are of significant importance.

A frontal counterattack is planned on two or three axes in accordance with the likely axes of attack of enemy main forces. Moreover, the aim of the counterattack is specified, which differs with the composition of the front's second-echelon troops and reserves, as well as with the composition of the enemy attacking group. In one case, the aim of the counterattack will be the destruction of penetrating enemy forces and the restoration of the defense, while in another case it might be the destruction of enemy striking groups and restoration of the defense along with seizure of vital objectives in enemy territory, which may provide favorable conditions for passing over to the attack.

The missions of frontal troops are specified in accordance with the concept of operation. The missions assigned to the troops include the following points:
(1) To first-echelon armies:
- combat composition, attachments, defensive areas, and axes or areas of concentrating for the main effort;
- where, when, and on which enemy formation(s), heavy losses should be inflicted and its attack repelled;
- the number and yield of nuclear rounds to be employed in the army's area by higher echelons;
- areas of counterpreparatory fire (counterbombardment), and if such fire is planned, the troops and means to be tasked for such action;
- axes of counterattacks and lines of deployment of the troops for counterattacks;
- missions of adjacent units and the method of coordination with them;
- missions of front aircraft in the area of the army's defense and the method of interaction with them;
- method and nature of preparing engineer works and fortifications in defensive areas;
- location of command posts;
- the time of readiness of defense and of the fire system.

(2) To second-echelon armies (combined arms reserve):
- areas of concentration or areas to be held and prepared;
- missions, axes of counterattacks, movement routes, and the lines of deployment for counterattacks;
- the numbers of allocated nuclear rounds;
- method of cover against the enemy's air attacks and the method of air support of the troops;
- method of interaction with first-echelon forces and other troops;
- missions concerning fighting enemy airborne assault landings and instructions on protection of the troops against mass destruction weapons;
- the command post.

(3) To rocket (SSM) troops:
- areas of main and alternate (reserve) positions and the method and time of constructing (digging in) the positions and their occupation;
- numbers of missiles to be launched, and the method of their preparation and movement to the launch positions;
- missions, targets to be destroyed, and method of delivering nuclear strikes;
- measures ensuring the preparation of rocket troops to use nuclear weapons in conditions of conducting combat operations with conventional weapons;
- missions concerning fighting enemy nuclear-delivery means and missions on destruction of enemy attacking and penetrating groups;
- method of rocket troops' maneuver and relocation;
- measures ensuring the security of friendly troops against the impacts of own nuclear weapons, and also measures on assessment and control of the impact of the nuclear strikes.

(4) To artillery troops:
- composition, missions, and the areas of deployment during the conduct of counterpreparatory fires during the front's counterattacks; missions to combat enemy nuclear delivery means and troops during their approach to defensive areas and also while repelling enemy attacks and launching of counterattacks; allocation of ammunition to missions and to operational formations (armies); and time of readiness of artillery fire systems.

(5) To the front air army:
- missions and targets to be destroyed by nuclear weapons, and the method of delivery of the strikes (low air burst, high air burst, etc.)
- measures on ensuring the preparation for use of nuclear weapons when combat actions are conducted only with conventional weapons;
- missions for combatting enemy nuclear weapons and also for destruction of enemy groups of forces on approaches to the defense, during the conduct of counterpreparatory fires, and while repelling enemy attacks and during counterattacks;
- method of interaction with motorized infantry (or tank) units, rocket (SSM) troops, and also with frontal and PVO air defense troops in the course of the operation.

(6) To air defense troops:
- in covering groupings of the troops, where the main efforts of air defense troops should be concentrated at the beginning and during the course of the operation;
- methods of combatting enemy air attacks while covering the troops during counterpreparatory fires and during counterattacks;
- method of interaction with fighter aircraft and with operational formations (large units) of PVO forces;
- method and time of deployment of air defense units at the beginning of the operation and their maneuver during the operation.

(7) To the mobile antitank reserve and mobile obstacle detachment:
- composition, areas of concentration, axes or areas of operation for the mobile obstacle detachment, and method of maneuver and coordination with first and second-echelon troops.

(8) To combat engineer and chemical reserves:
- their composition and areas of deployment.

After making the decision, the front commander usually issues instructions to the staff and to the chiefs of combat and combat arms and services on planning the operation, on establishment of coordination, on party and political work, on troop control, on the establishment of the defensive group of troops, on their preparation for the accomplishment of assigned missions, on support of their combat actions, and on organization and operations of rear services' echelons.

The decisions of the front commander are marked on the map by the front staff along with working-out necessary written instructions. Based on the commander's decision, the operational directive is established. Missions are assigned to the troops by issuing related written excepts from the operational directive to them or by sending them individual operational orders or instructions.

 
 

Planning the Operation

Planning the operation is worked-out jointly by the front staff, chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, and the staff of the front air army. The planning of the operation is conducted on the basis of the front commander's decision and his instructions on planning the operation. The nature of planning is specification of a unified direction of actions, the best method for their accomplishment, and specification of the most effective use of troops and means in successful accomplishment of assigned missions and achievement of the aim of operations. The following points are specified in the plan:
- the sequence and form of accomplishment of missions on inflicting losses on the enemy on approaches leading to the defense, on repelling an enemy attack, and on destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into defensive positions;
- groups of forces and air forces' units, allocation of the efforts of troops and supplies to different missions, and axes of combat actions;
- method of coordination among the troops, all-around support of combat actions, and troop control.

The execution of missions in operations is planned so that front troops can accomplish them in conditions of conducting the operation with or without the employment of nuclear weapons. In order to foil a prepared enemy attack, nuclear strikes, as well as the strikes of air forces using conventional weapons are planned in detail against likely areas of deployment of enemy nuclear-delivery means, airfields and air bases, groups of enemy main forces during their advance and their deployment for attack, and also enemy command posts and air defense means. If the operation is prepared in peacetime, then the above-mentioned tasks would constitute the basic contents of initial front nuclear strikes, and front troops should be prepared to follow them by initiating the attack.

If counterpreparatory fires are anticipated and planned in operations without the employment of nuclear weapon, then they are planned on one or two axes to inflict losses upon the enemy in his start positions. The form of firing laid out in counterpreparatory fires, as well as artillery and air forces' units to be called for conducting such fires and the method of taking up firing positions, are specified for the artillery.

If the area to be covered by counterpreparatory fires is specified in the limits of the defensive area of one army, its size can be ten to 15 km both in width and in depth. But if it is specified at adjoining flanks of two armies, the figure may reach 20-25 km and the density of artillery operating in the area will be 40-50 pieces per kilometer of front. If the air forces are also called to participate in counterpreparatory fires, their strikes are planned on areas beyond the range of artillery. The depth of counterpreparatory fires reaches 25-30 km. The duration of counterpreparatory fires can be 25-30 minutes.

The counterattacks of the army's and front's second-echelon forces (reserves) are planned on two or three axes. On each axis the following points are specified:
- the aim of the counterattack; the missions of motorized rifle and tank troops participating in the counterattack; method of movement to, and deployment on, specified lines; and the axis and form of their actions during launching the counterattack;
- missions of rocket (SSM) troops, artillery, air forces' and air defense troops;
- missions of first-echelon armies defending in the area of counterattack;
- the method of coordination;
- measures for supporting the counterattack and method of troop control.

When preparing the defensive operation in the course of military actions without the use of nuclear weapons, particular attention is paid, during the planning of the employment of conventional means, to working out measures directed to ensure constant readiness of the troops to launch the initial nuclear strike and to pass over to actions employing nuclear weapons. The following points are specified to fight against enemy airborne- assault landing troops;
- likely landing areas of enemy airborne assault troops, composition of enemy landing troops, and likely character of their combat actions;
- missions of rocket (SSM) troops and air forces for the destruction of enemy airborne assault troops in their assembly areas, on the airfield and during their embarkation in aircraft (helicopters);
- missions of air defense troops and means for the destruction of enemy airborne assault troops in the air;
- troops and means assigned to destroy enemy airborne assault troops after their landing, and their missions.

The planning of the operation is completed with the creation of the operations plan. The chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services work out the plans for the combat employment of their subordinate arms and services, while the chief of logistics works out the logistics support plan, which is part of the operations plan. The plan of the front's defensive operation is prepared graphically on a 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scale map, in which the composition of the enemy's group of troops, their likely axis of attack, the operational formation of friendly troops, the defensive area (lines), nuclear strikes against the enemy, artillery fire plans, systems of obstacles, lines of deployment for counterattacks, group of units and large units, airbases, command posts, the main rear service units and installations of the front and those of the armies, maneuver routes and supply and evacuation routes are depicted. The graphical part of the plan should be properly marked and clearly understandable; unnecessary details should be avoided.

The written part of the plan addresses the following points:
- deductions of the estimate of the situation;
- the goal and concept of the operation;
- combat composition of the front;
- distribution of support arms and means;
- availability, time of delivery, and allocation of nuclear rounds to different missions and among different operational formations (armies);
- allocation of combat sorties of the front air army;
- relative balance of the troops in the entire defensive area of the front and on different axes;
- calculation of time for the movement of second-echelon troops and reserves to specified deployment lines to launch counterattacks or to reinforce first-echelon troops;
- availability, time of delivery, and distribution of supplies and stores;
- time of readiness of fire system; engineer works and fortifications;
- troop control signals.

The plan of the defensive operation can also be prepared in written form, with the map of the front commander's decision attached to it.

 
 

The Lay-out of the Front's defense

The lay-out of the front's defense includes the disposition of the following:
- grouping of troops and means across the front and in depth;
- nuclear strikes;
- the system of defensive positions, lines, and belts;
- blocking positions;
- deployment areas of rocket (SSM) troops and SAM units;
- lines of deployment to launch counterattacks;
- the fire system and the strikes of air forces using conventional weapons;
- air defense system;
- engineer preparation of the terrain.

The basis of the defensive lay-out is established by grouping the troops and means and the nuclear strikes. The other elements of the defensive lay-out, as mentioned above, are decided in accordance with the established grouping of troops and means and the specified method of the employment of nuclear weapons.

The grouping of troops and means depends on the following:
- the width of the defensive area and combat composition of the front;
- the conditions of taking up the defense;
- character of the terrain, particularly the numbers, size, and width of axes favoring the advance and attack of the enemy;
- the strength of likely enemy strikes and the conditions for conducting maneuvers by friendly troops and means in the course of the defensive operation.

The groups of troops and means are established in such a way as to ensure the following:
- exploitation of favorable terrain features and quick establishment of engineer construction;
- effective employment of all weapons to inflict losses on enemy ground and air forces;
- insuring the firmness of defense in key areas;
- intensification of resistance against the enemy on dangerous axes;
- deceiving the enemy about the real grouping of front troops;
- making it difficult for the enemy to select proper targets for destruction;
- ensuring the protection of the troops against enemy nuclear attacks and against the fire of conventional weapons;
- ensuring continuous interaction and troop control.

Since the troops and means will not be sufficient to establish a strong defense on all favorable axes, the main efforts in establishing the groups of troops and means are concentrated on the decisive axis defended by first-echelon troops of the front and the armies, while second-echelon troops and reserves are allocated to enhance the efforts from the rear and to launch counterattacks. The first-echelon army defending on the axis of likely enemy main attack may be assigned an area 100-150 km wide. Terrain offering the enemy difficult access is defended by a limited number of troops. In such areas the troops may defend on wide fronts, while leaving gaps between units to be covered by fire and obstacles.

The operational formation of the front may be established in one or two echelons that consist of the following elements:
- first-echelon armies;
- second-echelon armies;
- combined arms reserve;
- group of SSM troops;
- air forces' group;
- air defense group;
- engineer and chemical troops directly attached to the front;
- various special reserves;
- mobile antitank reserves;
- mobile obstacle detachments.

The front's first-echelon troops are designed to repel the enemy attack, to inflict heavy losses on enemy forces, to hold and retain important areas and terrain features, and to provide favorable conditions for the front's counterattack. The bulk of the front's troops and means are allocated to the first-echelon. The front's first-echelon army prepares and holds two to three defensive belts. The first belt is the main defensive belt, and it is defended by first-echelon divisions of the army. The second and third belts, which are also known as the army's second and third defensive lines, are defended by second-echelon (reserve) divisions. The first defensive belt consists of three or more defensive positions, and its overall depth may reach 20 km. The second and third belts each consist of one or two positions. The distance between the second defensive belt and the first defensive belt is 80-100 km in depth from the FEBA of the first defensive belt. The total depth of the front first-echelon army's defensive area may reach 100-120 km or more. When organizing the defense when not in close contact with the enemy, a security zone 15 km or more in depth is established in front of the first defensive belt. The security zone is established to delay enemy attack, to force the enemy into a premature deployment, to divert the enemy attack to unfavorable axes, and to detect the enemy group of troops and its intentions. The security zone is usually defended by motorized rifle and tank troops from first-echelon divisions. The security zone is also established in situations of assuming the defense in the course of offensive operations when the FEBA is not selected on the line of contact, but is established in depth.

The second-echelon of the front is normally assigned to launch the counterattack. In some situations, in the course of the defensive operation, the front's second-echelon troops may partially or entirely establish the defense on vital operational lines in depth on the axis of the enemy main attack in order to delay its attack and to inflict heavy losses by defensive action. The composition of the front's second-echelon may include a combined arms army or army corps.

The combined arms reserve consists of various numbers of motorized rifle and tank divisions. It is designated to reinforce troops operating on decisive axes, or to relieve large units that have lost their combat capabilities. The reserve is also assigned to launch counterattacks, to destroy enemy airborne assault landing troops, and to accomplish other unexpected missions that may arise in the course of defensive operations. In the absence of second-echelon troops in the front, the combined arms reserve is established in great strength. Such a strong reserve, along with the armies' second-echelon troops, constitutes the group of troops required to launch counterattacks.

The front's second-echelon army establishes its defense at a distance of 150 km or more to the rear of the FEBA. The divisions included in the combined arms reserve deploy in assembly areas or hold defensive lines on vital axes while ready to deal with unexpected situations and conduct new missions in the course of the defensive operation.

By employing the front's second-echelon troops and combined arms reserve, one or two separate front defensive lines are established that are located 60-80 km from the FEBA of the first-echelon army's last (rear) defensive belt. Such a distance provides the proper conditions for a dispersed and concealed deployment of the front's second-echelon troops and reserve and gives it the capability to conduct quick maneuvers on each axis in order to launch counterattacks or to accomplish other missions. Moreover, at such a distance, the selection of deployment areas and positions for air defense missiles, airfields for the front air army, position areas for air defense missiles, and areas of deployment for combat support troops and for rear service units and installations can be achieved in a most effective way.

The overall depth of the front defense, with two to three army defensive zones and one to two front defensive belts, may reach 250-300 km. In the area of the front (army) defense blocking lines (belts), alternate (reserve) positions and lines, and deceptive defensive positions and areas are also established. The group of rocket (SSM) troops is established in close consideration of the following requirements:
- full use of its capabilities to deliver massive and group nuclear strikes on the main axis, and full use of its maneuver capabilities across the entire area of the front's responsibility;
- inflicting heavy losses on enemy groups on approaches leading to the defense, in front of the FEBA, and to the depth of the defensive zone;
- insuring the strength and firmness of combat formations of rocket troops during enemy nuclear attacks and during the penetration of enemy forces into the defensive zone.

Each rocket (SSM) brigade is assigned one main position area and one to two alternate (reserve) areas. For a P-300 SSM brigade the main position area is selected 60-80 km from the FEBA, while its alternate (reserve) positions are specified 15-30 km apart from its main position area. The installations of rocket troops' position areas are constructed by SSM troops themselves. Engineer units of the front may be called for this purpose as necessary.

The group of the front air forces is established in close consideration of the following requirements: to insure favorable conditions to accomplish the missions of the air army; effective use of air attacks against the enemy's nuclear delivery means and against the main attacking group; and effective employment of air forces to conduct air reconnaissance and to repel enemy air attacks in coordination with front and PVO troops, as well as with air defense means of adjacent operational formations (fronts, armies). The fighter-bomber and reconnaissance air forces' units are deployed at a distance of 100-150 km from the FEBA, while the bomber air forces' units are based 200-300 km away from the FEBA in depth. Each air forces division is assigned an airfield complex, including four to six operational airfields and two to three reserve airfields.

The front's air defense troop grouping is established by SAM units and large units, antiaircraft artillery units and large units, and electronic troops. The grouping of these troops and means is established in such a way that along with the fighter force of the front air army, and in close coordination with PVO large units, as well as air defense troops and means of adjacent formations, they prevent enemy attacks on all axes against the main group of friendly forces and against airfields and vital logistic targets. They should also destroy enemy airborne assault troops in the air and should not allow flights of enemy aircraft and pilotless devices (drones) into the depth of friendly territory. The front's air defense units and large units sufficiently cover SSM troops, second-echelon forces, and the front's troop control posts.

The group of the front's engineer troops is established by the following elements:
- engineer troops attached to first-echelon armies and to SSM and SAM troops;
- mobile obstacle detachments;
- engineer troops allocated to carry out tasks in general interest of the front;
- engineer troops allocated to front reserve (engineer reserve).

The group of front chemical troops is established to accomplish missions for chemical support of the operation. The chemical protection units are normally deployed in areas selected for special decontamination of the troops.

The group of radio-electronic warfare troops and means is established in close consideration of the requirements to jam command and control means and guidance systems of the enemy's weapons on important axes of likely enemy attacks, and also to ensure the maneuver and stepping-up of the actions of radio- electronic jamming operations in the course of the defensive operation.

The front's mobile antitank reserves are established by large antitank units of the supreme command attached to the front, to include one to two antitank artillery brigades. They are designated to reinforce the antitank defense of first-echelon armies, to destroy groups of enemy tanks that have penetrated into the depth of the defense, and also to support the deployment of the counterattacking group of the front. The mobile antitank reserves are normally deployed on two axes by preparing two to three firing lines on each axis, 12-18 km wide for each antitank artillery brigade. The mobile antitank reserve operates independently or jointly with the mobile obstacle detachment.

Mobile obstacle detachments are tasked to mine and construct obstacles on the main axes of the enemy attack. Normally two mobile obstacle detachments are established in the front, each consisting of one engineer battalion. The reserves of combat and combat support arms are dispersed in the front's area close to road centers and usually in front of the front's second-echelon large units. They are kept in constant readiness to carry out unexpected tasks.

Nuclear strikes in the front's defensive operation are one of the vital elements of the defensive layout. The successful accomplishment of missions by front troops in the defensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons depends on proper organization and timely preparation of nuclear strikes. Preparation of nuclear strikes is conducted is accordance with the decision of the front commander on employment of nuclear weapons in the defensive operation. The nuclear strikes are prepared along with details on different states of readiness in specified conditions of the situation.

These situations are when the defense is organized in the face of conditions in which the enemy has completed the grouping of his troops and means for the attack (counterattack), or is in the process of completing such a grouping, in order to inflict losses on the enemy on approaches leading to the defense or in front of the FEBA. The targets to be destroyed, numbers and yields of nuclear rounds and their delivery means to each target, types of bursts, and the time of launching nuclear strikes are specified.

When the enemy forces are dispersed, deployed in assembly areas a great distance away, or on the move, launching nuclear strikes against them will be less effective. In such cases, the enemy's likely concentration and deployment areas for attack are determined, and nuclear strikes, including the specified number of rounds to be launched against them once they arrive in such areas, and also the location of some targets, are determined. Questions concerning the preparation of subsequent nuclear strikes while repelling enemy attack and in the course of conducting the counterattack are resolved in such a way that these strikes, including the number of allocated rounds, the yield of nuclear rounds, means of their delivery, and also the areas where the enemy will be engaged, are all roughly determined in advance.

To deal with unexpected situations and to resolve unanticipated missions, particularly to destroy enemy nuclear weapons, a necessary number of nuclear rounds of different yields, different ranges, and accuracy of fire, employed by different delivery means, are retained in reserve.

Nuclear weapons are employed in the defensive operation to accomplish the following:
- to destroy enemy nuclear delivery means where they are located;
- to inflict heavy losses on the main enemy advancing columns, as well as on concentrating, attacking, or penetrating enemy forces, especially the group of tank forces;
- to destroy the enemy while conducting counterattacks;
- to interrupt enemy troop control and the operation of rear services.

The principal targets of nuclear weapons can be the following:
- surface-to-surface missile troops and artillery in firing positions;
- storage depots of weapons of mass destruction;
- motorized rifle (infantry) and armored units;
- airfields and aircraft based on them;
- air defense means;
- command posts;
- vital targets at the enemy rear services echelon.

In the front defensive operation a limited number of nuclear rounds are allocated. Therefore, only individual or group nuclear strikes are delivered in the course of the operation. Massive nuclear strikes, to inflict heavy losses on the enemy, can be employed in the phase of the enemy's preparation for the attack or during the conduct of the front's counterattack. In the defense nuclear weapons are used in the form of surface or air bursts. Surface bursts are usually employed in favorable meteorological conditions and principally to inflict losses on enemy targets deployed in depth, and also against enemy troops during their advance and deployment for attack.

In case of relatively limited availability of nuclear rounds, particular significance is given to their employment on the main axis to resolve the most important tasks. In this case the planning of the employment, and command and control of nuclear attacks is centralized.

During preparations for defensive operations in peacetime, and when the troops take up the defensive in the course of an offensive operation without the employment of nuclear weapons, the front will have a sufficient number of nuclear rounds to foil organized enemy attacks. In this case the front initiates the attack quickly following its initial nuclear strike in accordance with arrangements made during the preparation of the operation.

 
 

The Fire System

The fire system of conventional weapons includes the following:
- organized fire strikes against the enemy on the approaches to the defense;
- the establishment of multi-layered massive fires of all types of weapons to the immediate front of the FEBA, at the flanks and in the rear;
- maneuver by fire on all axes, particularly in dangerous areas.

The air forces launch conventional weapons strikes against the enemy either together with the front's firing means or independently. The air forces generally engage moving and small targets located beyond the range of artillery.

Fire systems and air forces' strikes in the defense should insure the following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means;
- inflicting losses on the enemy in assembly areas, during movement, on deployment lines, or in attack positions;
- neutralization of enemy artillery, air defense means, command posts, and radar stations;
- support of friendly troops operating in the security zone;
- repelling massive attacks of enemy infantry and tanks;
- destruction of enemy forces that have penetrated into the rear of the defensive disposition;
- counterpreparatory fire and support of counterattacks;  
- covering flanks, gaps, engineer obstacles, natural barriers, and also the areas hit by enemy nuclear attacks.

The fire system and air strikes are organized in the entire area of the front's responsibility for defense, in front of each defensive belt and line, and within belts and lines. They are organized in more detail particularly on the main axes of enemy attack. The deployment and positioning of the weapons should ensure inflicting losses on the enemy through the use of flanking fire, crossfire, surprise, short-range, concentrated fire with maximum density, and also through the use of the "pocket of fire." All weapons should be ready for wide maneuvers.

The air defense system in modern times is established to provide reliable cover for the main group of the troops and the front's important targets, particularly rocket troops, air forces, and front operational formations and large units operating on important axes. It should also cover the second-echelon troops and the front's reserves in their deployment area, as well as during the conduct of the armies' and front counterattacks.

The front's air defense system includes the following elements:
- reconnaissance of the enemy's aircraft and warning front troops about the enemy;
- covering front troops and targets with surface-to-air missiles and antiaircraft artillery;
- covering troops with fighter aircraft;
- troop control of air defense troops and coordination within the front's air defense troops and also with air defense means of adjacent fronts and with those of PVO forces.

Engineer preparation of terrain in the defense includes the following arrangements:
- fortification of defensive belts, as well as of position areas of surface-to-surface and surface-to-air missile troops and artillery positions;
- preparation of deployment lines for launching counterattacks;
- preparation of deployment areas of command posts, second- echelon troops, combat support units, large units, and the rear services;
- establishment of engineer obstacles in front of the FEBA and in the rear of the defense;
- construction and/or improvement of routes of maneuver and supply, and evacuation routes.

Engineer preparation of terrain is conducted throughout the entire depth of the defense in order of priority to ensure constant readiness of the troops to repel enemy attack and to provide protection against all means of destruction. Engineer preparation of terrain begins with the organization of the system of fire and is conducted by all troops, with maximum use machinery, tools, and prefabricated construction material and with the full use of the troops.

Engineer works of first priority in large units occupying defensive belts are:
- digging pits for weapons and trenches for personnel;
- construction of coverlets-type installations for observation posts, shelters in command posts, and in medical centers;
- installation of obstacles in front of the FEBA, in gaps, and at the flanks;
- preparation of fields of fire for antitank weapons, deployment lines for counterattacks, and movement routes to such lines;
- establishment of water supply points;
- preparing bridges, pipelines, water pipes, and other vital targets for destruction.

To accomplish the above-mentioned works, the troops will need five to six hours. Engineer works of second priority:
- foxholes are integrated into the squad's trenches and alternate positions are prepared for weapons and tanks;
- the foxholes are connected with each other by trenches and communications trenches are dug out;
- deployment lines for counterattacks and firing lines of antitank weapons are improved, covered trenches and shelters for personnel and shelters for vehicles, supplies, and stores are prepared;
- the density of obstacles in front of the FEBA, in depth, and at the flanks and gaps is intensified, and the routes of maneuver are improved.

Engineer preparation of the front's and army's defensive positions is conducted during the preparation, as well as during the conduct of defensive combat, by large units included in second-echelon troops and reserves and also by engineer fortification units. In certain situations the local population, with civilian vehicles and those of the national economy, are employed for this task as well.

Engineer obstacles are established along with the fire system, in close consideration of natural obstacles and barriers and also in accordance with actual and planned demolition fires, and flooded areas. The obstacles are established primarily on the main axes of the tank threat. For complete engineer preparation of the front's defensive belts, eight to ten days and nights are required.

 
 

Organization of Interaction

Interaction in front defensive operations is organized on the basis of the troops' mission and likely axes of enemy attack. Establishment of interaction in support of the accomplishment of missions to inflict losses on the enemy during its advance, and in the course of the deployment for attack, is organized by the front commander by directing and allocating the actions of the rocket (SSM) troops, air forces, and artillery to targets, including the time and place of delivering strikes, in a coordinated form. Particular attention is concentrated on inflicting timely, effective losses on enemy nuclear weapons, its main group of forces, its air forces, and also on its command posts. During the confirmation of the above-mentioned actions, the army commander specifies measures for protecting the troops against friendly nuclear strikes.

Coordination in repelling the enemy attack is organized directly on the most likely axes of attack. On each axis, the time and place of inflicting losses on enemy attacking groups by nuclear or conventional weapons, the method of holding vital defensive areas and lines by the troops, their reinforcement by army and front means, and the method of conducting counterattacks against the penetrating enemy by army means are specified.

If a security zone is established in front of the FEBA, the front commander specifies the method of action of the troops allocated to that zone, as well as the action of supporting troops and their protection and supply.

To destroy large enemy forces that have penetrated into the depth of the defense, the principal attention in the interaction of coordination is concentrated on the distribution of targets to be destroyed by SSM troops, air forces, and artillery and the method of launching strikes against them in accordance with the front's and army's plan, and also on coordination of these strikes with the operation of defending troops and those called to launch the front's counterattack.

As for the front's second-echelon troops and reserves, the method of their movement and deployment, and the time and form of launching the counterattacks are specified. The defending troops are instructed on areas and lines to be held in support of providing the best conditions for launching the counterattack, and also on the method of participation of their troops in the front's counterattack and in consolidation of seized lines. Moreover, measures on covering counterattacking forces against enemy air attacks during their movement, as well as during their deployment and conduct of the counterattack, are specified, and support of their action is provided.

Troops and means are allocated to cover gaps and adjoining flanks of armies with adjacent fronts, and the time of readiness of obstacles and the fire system is specified. The actions of the front's units and large units in repelling the enemy's attack and destroying penetrating forces are coordinated. The major topics of interaction are specified by the front commander in the decision for the operation. The method of interaction is described to subordinate commanders and staffs during the assignment of combat missions through additional instructions on interaction. Depending on the time available, the practical procedure on organization of interaction is carried out on the map, on terrain models, or directly on the terrain. Matters concerning coordination are reflected in the plan of defense, in the plans for the combat employment of combat arms, and in the plans of different types of support.

 
 

Establishment of Troop Control

The establishment of troop control in the front's defensive operation includes the following elements:
- preparation of command posts and organization of their operation;
- establishment of a signal communications system;
- maintaining the constant readiness of the staffs to command and control the subordinate troops.

The following command posts are established in the front's defensive operation: main command post, alternate command post, and rear command post. An airborne command post, from which the front commander controls the troops during flight to one of the combat operation areas, may also be established. In some situations an auxiliary command post is established as well, in order to control troops operating on an independent and separate axis. During the conduct of the front's counterattack, a forward command post is also established.

The main command post is the principal place of troop control. The main command post is deployed at one of the flanks of the axis of the enemy's likely main attack at a distance of 100-120 km from the FEBA in an area that can provide concealed deployment and quick operation of the command post. Engineer preparation of the command post should insure reliable protection of personnel, communications means, and transport vehicles against enemy attacks.

An alternate command post is established at the flank or at the rear of the main command post in an area that can permit reliable troop control in case the main command post is destroyed. It is manned constantly by an operational group detached from the front's headquarters, and is provided with documents and information required to help take over troop control. Moreover, reliable communications are established from alternate command posts to lower and higher echelons' headquarters, as well as to cooperating troops and adjacent forces' command posts.

The rear command post is established in an area that can support the troop control of front logistical units and installations and that also ensures the maintenance of reliable communications with the front's main command post and with the armies' main and rear command posts. The front's rear command post should also be constantly prepared to take over as the main command post when the situation requires. The airborne command post is an auxiliary command post. The signal communications system in the defensive operation includes the following elements: improved network of different types of signal communications lines and links and the main and auxiliary signal centers that are established so as to ensure continuous communications with the troops and front air army units during the conduct of different defensive missions. Signal communications should also provide reliable links with the Armed Forces' General Staff, with adjacent fronts, and with other coordinating headquarters.

 
 

Organization of Combat Protection and Security of the Front Troops

The achievement of the goal of the operation depends greatly on the detailed and all-around combat support, protection, and security of the troops. The basic types of support and protection are the following:
- reconnaissance;
- protection of the troops and logistical installations against weapons of mass destruction;
- engineer support;
- chemical support;
- operational concealment;
- radio-electronic warfare;
- hydrometeorological support;
- topogeodesic support;
- logistical support.

All types of support and protection in the defensive operation are organized on the basis of the front commander's decision for the operation, his instructions on different types of support, and in accordance with the instructions of the Armed Forces' General Staff. Support measures of the operation are organized directly under the guidance of the chief of staff. Appropriate plans are worked out for each type of support, and orders are issued to the troops through combat instructions. Here we briefly discuss reconnaissance, protection of the troops against weapons of mass destruction, and operational concealment.

Reconnaissance

Organization of reconnaissance includes the following elements:
- planning and issuing missions to troops carrying out reconnaissance tasks;
- allocation of reconnaissance troops and means to accomplish different missions and the establishment of a reconnaissance troops reserve;
- specification of the method of coordination among various types of reconnaissance and their coordination with reconnaissance troops and means of combat and combat support arms;
- organization of communications with reconnaissance units (subunits) and with reconnaissance groups operating in the rear of the enemy lines;
- collection, assessment, and analysis of reconnaissance information, reporting them to the commander, and informing the troops and adjacent units;
- assistance for the troops in carrying out reconnaissance tasks and controlling the conduct of these tasks.

In all conditions of initiating the defense, reconnaissance should detect in a timely fashion the group of the enemy's troops and means, his concept of the operation for attack, the axis of his main attack, and the time and method of operation. In the course of the combat operation without the employment of nuclear weapons, the important task of reconnaissance is the detection of the enemy's preparation for the use of nuclear weapons and locating enemy targets to be engaged by friendly nuclear strikes. The important requirements of successful accomplishment of reconnaissance missions are the following:
- wise distribution of reconnaissance troops and means; concentration of efforts of all types of reconnaissance in execution of the most important tasks;
- effective utilization of reconnaissance troops and means;
- the establishment of reliable communications with them.

All measures to be taken in conducting the reconnaissance are thoroughly reflected in the reconnaissance plan, which is organized and worked out by the front's reconnaissance department, with the participation of the air army's chief of reconnaissance and senior reconnaissance officers of different arms and services in the planning process. When the front assumes the defense while in the course of attack, a new reconnaissance plan may not be worked out due to the lack of time. In this case the standing reconnaissance plan will be adjusted and developed in accordance with the decision made for the defensive operation.

Protection Against Mass-Destruction Weapons

Protection of the troops and objectives against mass destruction weapons in the front defensive operation is organized to avoid losses caused by enemy nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, or to decrease their impact to the minimum, and also to maintain the combat capability of the main group of the front's troops and to insure successful accomplishment of the defensive operation.

The front commander specifies the most important measures on protection of the troops and rear services' installations during the process of making the decision for the defense. He also specifies the troops and means to carry out tasks in this connection. Based on the commander's decision, the front staff, together with the chiefs of different arms and services, organizes the implementation of these measures and tasks and controls their execution.

Measures for protection of troops and rear services' installations are reflected in the plan of the defensive operation and in the plans for the combat employment of combat arms, as well as in the plans of combat support and protection. If time permits, a separate plan of protection against weapons of mass destruction can be worked out.

Operational Concealment (Maskirovka)

Operational concealment is organized and conducted to deceive the enemy on the concept of the defense and on missions carried out by troops in defense. Establishment of operational concealment helps to decrease the impact of enemy nuclear strikes and other strikes and to maintain the combat capabilities of friendly forces. The principal measures of operational concealment in the front's defensive operation are the following:
- insuring concealed movement of troops and the secret occupation of defensive positions;
- establishment of all types of concealment (i.e., optical, radar, radio-electronic, thermal, magnetic, and acoustic concealment) to hide the main group of troops and vital targets;
- establishment of deceptive (dummy) operational formations, or parts of them, as well as a deceptive system of engineer works, such as defensive positions and belts, switch (alternate) positions, intermediate positions, lines of deployment, and dummy obstacles;
- establishment of forward defensive positions (general outpost line) to conceal the actual FEBA;
- simulation of the deployment of rocket (SSM) troops, second-echelon forces, reserves, command posts, and deceptive concentration areas;
- establishment of dummy airfields and deceptive radio- electronic situations.

The important measures are alternate redeployment of SSM troops and relocation of second-echelon troops, reserves, command posts, and rocket engineering bases and organization of operation of SAM artillery units from temporary positions located away from the area of deployment of the main group of the troops. In keeping the secrecy of the signal communications system, deployment across the width and in depth and full utilization of wire links, auxiliary signal centers, VHF radio stations, and radio relay are of significant importance.

All measures on operational concealment are thoroughly interconnected and coordinated in terms of objectives, time, and place. The operations department of the front staff organizes the plan of operational concealment. The chiefs of the combat support arms and services and the chief of logistics (rear services) are also called to participate in the planning.

To implement planned measures on operational concealment motorized rifle and tank divisions, engineer troops, and other combat support arms units and subunits are allocated special organic means of radio-electronic warfare, engineer machinery and vehicles, concealment equipment and materiel, various simulating equipment, and smoke devices. Publications, press, radio, television, and other means of mass media are utilized. Moreover, combat and transport vehicles, as well as railroad transport and mobile transportation means may also be employed. The execution of operational concealment measures by the troops is controlled by front and army headquarters.

 
 

III. Conduct of the Defensive Operation With the Use of Conventional Weapons

The front's defensive operation can be initiated in different forms, depending on the conditions of assuming the defense. In assuming the defense in the absence of direct contact with the enemy's main force, the combat action of the troops in the front's defensive operation is initiated by engagement of the enemy's advancing or concentrating columns that are preparing to attack. In this case fire attacks are launched against the enemy on distant approaches to the defense by bomber and fighter-bomber air force units. As the enemy approaches closer, air forces' strikes are further intensified and supplemented by artillery fires. The principal enemy targets to be destroyed are: nuclear delivery means; enemy troops in the main group of forces, particularly antitank troops, airfields, air defense troops, and means, command posts, and vital targets in the enemy's rear services' echelon.

In situations when the defense is assumed without having direct contact with the enemy the action of defending troops and air forces begins with strikes against enemy delivery means and against troops in assembly areas and in attack positions, against enemy artillery positions, and against reserves moving from the rear.

When the front assumes the defense while in the attack or while facing enemy counterattack, the defensive action may start directly by repelling enemy ground and air attacks. The difficulties of executing defensive tasks under such conditions will be due to the fact that defensive action of the troops is often conducted before the completion of the establishment of defensive groups and occupation of defensive positions by first-echelon large units in accordance with the decision made for the defense. In such situations besides repelling the enemy counterattack, a part of front troops will continue the attack to seize advantageous lines for defense.

Under all circumstances, the establishment of the defense by the front proceeds with the detection of likely or actual axes of enemy attack by reconnaissance, and with measures to reinforce the defense of those axes. For this purpose the missions of the air forces, artillery, and mobile antitank reserves, and the method of maneuver by troops and means are adjusted and confirmed. On dangerous axes the density of antitank weapons and obstacles is increased, engineer preparation of terrain is improved, and additional obstacle areas are established in the rear.

When defense is established in advance, a counterpreparatory fire on the enemy during his preparation for attack can be launched. Counterpreparatory fire is the delivery of strong fire strikes by the air forces, artillery, mortars, and tanks against the main group of the enemy. Counterpreparatory fire should be opened with surprise before the commencement of enemy preparatory air forces and artillery fire. Success in counterpreparatory fire is achieved by proper selection of the time of delivery, and the most effective distribution of targets to be destroyed among air forces, artillery, and other means of destruction. The main efforts of the troops and means participating in the conduct of counterpreparatory fires are concentrated on the most important, accurately-located targets, primarily on enemy nuclear delivery means, tank force groups, and command posts.

During commencement of the enemy attack, all weapons of defending troops open fire and intensify it to the maximum capacity. The artillery destroys enemy tanks by barrage fire and interrupts its combat formation, providing favorable conditions for this subsequent destruction by antitank weapons.

When the enemy penetrates into the main defense belt, measures are taken to hold firmly advantageous positions and to stop the further advance of the enemy into the rear and to the flanks by all types of fire and through launching counterattacks by second-echelon troops of regiments and divisions, in order to destroy penetrating enemy troops and to restore interrupted defensive dispositions.

If the enemy makes a major breakthrough by large forces, launching counterattacks may not be rational. In such situations, the second-echelon troops of the divisions hold defensive positions in depth and inflict losses on the enemy by all kinds of weapons and delay further the advance of the enemy into the rear.

When the danger of enemy breakthrough into the defensive zone of first-echelon divisions develops, the army's mobile antitank reserves are moved forward to threatened axes, and troops and means are moved to such areas from secondary axes. The first-echelon divisions, along with the army's mobile antitank reserves, take measures necessary to stop further advance of the enemy and to inflict heavy casualties on the enemy, which in itself provides favorable conditions for launching the army's counterattack.

While repelling the enemy's attack, the air forces carry out action with their maximum power and concentrate the main efforts on the destruction of located enemy nuclear delivery means and on neutralization of the most dangerous groups of attacking forces.

The enemy may land airborne assault troops to exploit its attack successfully. Troops from the second-echelon forces and reserves are detached to destroy enemy airborne assault troops. A more important role in destroying enemy airborne assault troops is played by air defense troops and the air forces. The enemy's airborne assault landing troops should be destroyed quickly in such a way that they may not be allowed to assemble after landing or to seize vital objectives and to fortify them.

The units which are left behind the enemy or are encircled by the enemy should not allow the disintegration of their combat formations through the effective use of their weapons and by firmly holding their occupied defensive positions (lines), supplemented by counterattacks. They should absorb as great an amount of enemy troops by their actions as possible. In support of friendly large units conducting combat actions from an encircled position, air strikes are launched while their actions are supported by artillery and their urgent supply is carried out by air drop operations. Such troops are given permission to attempt breaking the encirclement only when their actions in the encircled position prove to be useless.

The armies' counterattacks are launched on the basis of the army commanders' decisions with the permission of the front commander, and often by his direct instruction. The counterattacks should be normally supported by front troops and means, particularly by the front air army. In case of apparent superiority of the enemy, it might be better not to launch the armies' counterattacks. In this case, the second-echelon troops of the armies are employed to repel enemy attack by occupying and holding prepared defensive lines. To accomplish this task, the front combined arms and special reserves may be employed as well. During combat actions to hold the main defensive positions and defensive belts, measures are taken to organize the defense in operational depth. For this purpose, by the employment of front and armies' troops and means, engineer preparation of armies' and front's defensive belts, and defensive lines are maintained. The system of obstacles are developed on threatened axes, and actions are taken to prepare some terrain areas, as well as roads, crossings, bridges and other vital targets for destruction if necessary.

If the enemy makes a breakthrough into the second defensive belt and large enemy forces penetrate into that area, the most important tasks of the front's troops will be stop the enemy's advance, to inflict maximum losses on the enemy, to isolate the enemy's penetrating group from his other forces, to prevent the movement of enemy's reserves, and subsequently to break the enemy group into pieces by the actions of the front's first-echelon forces and reserves, supported by the air forces, and to provide favorable conditions for the front's counterattack.

The front's counterattack is normally launched to destroy enemy main forces on the decisive axis. On other axes, fighting the enemy's attacking troops is conducted by the elements of first-echelon armies. The most favorable conditions for the front's counterattack will be available when the front's defending troops maintain their combat capabilities and firmly hold the defensive positions at the flanks of the penetrating enemy, when the enemy attack at the frontline is delayed by friendly troops, when the enemy is suffering heavy losses, and he has committed his immediate reserves.

It is better for the front's counterattack to be launched against both flanks of the penetrating enemy. This provides the best conditions for getting to the rear of the enemy. But in some conditions, it may not be feasible to launch blows on both flanks of the enemy. In such cases the counterattack will have to be launched against one flank of the enemy. Such a situation may develop when movement of the troops to the other flank of the enemy is difficult because of the terrain, or it may take a long period of time.

To launch the front's counterattack, as many troops and means as possible must be called to participate in the counterattack such as: the front's second-echelon troops, front combined arms and special reserves, air armies' units and means, and also a part of first-echelon armies' troops, in the area in which the front counterattack is conducted.

The counterattack cannot achieve desirable consequences by the use of insufficient troops. Therefore, as many troops and means should be allocated to launch the counterattack as are needed to establish decisive superiority over the enemy and change the situation on the axis of the counterattack. It is better to employ a larger number of troops, preferably placing tank units and large units in the first-echelon of counterattacking groups. The attacks should be launched simultaneously and with surprise against weak areas, particularly against the enemy's open flanks and rear. The missions of the troops in the counterattack are assigned for the entire depth of the operation. They can be reconfirmed and adjusted during the course of the operation.

The immediate mission of counterattacking troops is the destruction of opposing enemy troops directly located in the counterattacking area, getting to the flanks and rear of the enemy's main group and providing the conditions for his destruction. The contents of subsequent missions include complete destruction of enemy groups which have penetrated into the defense, restoration of the defense and also destruction of the enemy reserves advancing to the area of counterattack. In situations when the enemy has committed all of his reserves by the time the friendly forces launch the counterattack, with the enemy having suffered heavy losses, his troop control disrupted, his air forces weakened and air superiority lost; the content of the immediate mission of the counterattacking group may include advance to the rear of the enemy's main group, its encirclement, and destruction. In this case the subsequent mission will be seizure of advantageous areas in enemy territory which can support initiation of a general offensive by the front. When smaller enemy forces penetrate into the defense, the counterattacking group is assigned only one mission, which will include: launching of a crushing and decisive blow against enemy troops, destruction of enemy troops penetrating into the defense, restoration of the defense, and establishment of favorable conditions to assume the offensive. The front's counterattack should normally begin with a short but strong preparatory fire. The actions of large infantry units participating in the counterattack should be of a decisive nature and should continue, without any pause, at a high rate of advance, with maximum power of the troops in the entire depth of assigned mission.

To achieve quick advance and delivery of decisive blows at the flanks and rear of enemy groups, the attacking troops should quickly exploit the impact of air forces strikes and artillery fires, and also should utilize the gaps and ruptures in the operational formation of enemy forces. During the counterattack, all measures should be taken to foil or weaken any counteraction taken by the enemy against the counterattack. Moreover, actions should be taken to effectively cover the exposed flanks of counterattacking troops. For this purpose, reconnaissance is further activated and air strikes are launched against the enemy, particularly against its approaching reserves. At the flanks, attacking large units (divisions), mobile antitank reserves, and mobile obstacle detachments are deployed and engineer obstacles are installed.

The counterattack can also be launched under conditions when the enemy's penetrating group is not yet stopped, but continues to attack (advance). In such a situation the actions of opposing sides will have the nature of a meeting engagement. During a counterattack, the front commander intensifies the efforts of the counterattacking group through the use of air strikes and artillery fires, through the commitment of second-echelon troops and reserves, and also by assigning large units (divisions) defending at the flanks of the counterattacking group to initiate the attack. This process is conducted in accordance with developments in the situation.

After the destruction of the enemy group which has penetrated into the defense, the previous defensive situation is restored and the front troops should be ready to repel the enemy's repeated attacks. Therefore, the troops are regrouped so that a deep operational formation is reestablished and reserves are newly constituted. In circumstances when the enemy intensifies the power of his attacks and continues to exploit his attack into the depth of the defense while the front troops suffer heavy losses, the counterattack of the front's second-echelon troops and reserves may not seem advisable. In this case it will be better for the front's available reserves to be employed to inflict losses on the enemy from defensive positions. The front's counterattack will be launched later, after it is reinforced by the supreme commander's reserves.

The front defensive operation ends when the front troops succeed in repelling the attack of the enemy's main forces and they destroy enemy troops which have penetrated into the defense and hold the occupied defensive positions. It must be noted that the enemy can initiate the employment of nuclear weapons at any time. Therefore taking continuous measures which may ensure constant readiness of the front troops to assume operations with the employment of nuclear weapons, primarily the readiness of rocket troops and air forces to launch the initial nuclear strike, is of significant importance. To serve this purpose, the rocket units to be called for launching the initial nuclear strike should be located in their deployment areas along with rockets and launching pads. Their maneuver to alternate positions is conducted in such a way that at the likely time of initiation of the employment of nuclear weapons, all or the major part of launching pads are ready to launch nuclear strikes. As the degrees of the threat of the employment of nuclear weapons by the enemy develops, the rocket troops are brought up to a higher state of readiness in a timely manner.

In situations when the threat of the enemy's use of nuclear weapons develops the air force continues to locate and destroy the enemy's nuclear means by its conventional weapons. In such situations a part of the bomber and fighter-bomber air forces units, on the basis of the front commander's decision, are placed in a stand-by state in airfields while they are armed with nuclear bombs. The front's troops should be ready constantly to take actions for protection against of the enemy's mass destructive weapons (nuclear). In the course of the defensive operation, the plan of initial nuclear strike should be reconfirmed from time to time, so that minimum time is spent while front troops assume combat actions with the use of nuclear weapons. For this purpose, it is necessary to constantly follow enemy targets to be destroyed, particularly the enemy's nuclear weapons and the enemy's group of troops. Moreover, the missions of rocket troops and air forces in initial nuclear strike are confirmed and necessary changes are made in the plan of initial nuclear strike.

 
 

IV. Conduct of Defensive Operations with the Use of Nuclear Weapons

The action of front's troops in the defensive operation with the employment of nuclear weapons is directed toward foiling the enemy's organized attack, or weakening the group of enemy troops to the maximum. In such situations, as many losses as possible are inflicted on the enemy's nuclear delivery means and on the main group of the enemy forces through the use of nuclear weapons and conventional means.

When the enemy initiates the offensive, his attacks are repelled in front of the FEBA by nuclear and conventional weapons, and if the enemy penetrates into the defense, his attacks are repelled by nuclear strikes and by fires of conventional weapons, as well as by counterattacks conducted by second-echelon troops and reserves.

When the front assumes the defense during the course of an attack, the defensive operation may begin directly by repelling the enemy's attacks, and by fortification of seized objectives and areas. Meanwhile, the defensive group of troops and fire systems are established in accordance with the commander's decision; nuclear strikes are prepared and launched; defensive positions and lines are prepared; antitank obstacles, destructions and barriers are established on the axes of the enemy's attack; and measures are taken to eliminate the impact of enemy nuclear strikes.

The most difficult and complicated situation may be created when the enemy launches surprise nuclear strikes against front's troops. In this case, the primary task will be to restore the combat capability of defending troops and defensive belts and to launch nuclear strikes against the enemy by all operational- tactical nuclear rocket launching pads and by the air army units. Meanwhile, other actions are taken to repel the enemy's ground and air attacks by all available weapons and means.

To prevent the advance of the enemy's attacking group and to hold favorable terrain, lines, and areas motorized rifle and tank divisions which have maintained their combat capabilities are quickly moved to the vital axes. In certain situations, during the movement of the divisions to their specified areas, meeting engagements may occur with enemy attacking units trying to exploit the consequences of nuclear strikes and to make it difficult for friendly forces to take up organized defense on advantageous lines. Under such circumstances, heavy losses are inflicted through repeated use of nuclear and conventional weapons while front motorized infantry and tank troops launch quick and powerful blows against the attacking enemy in order to get into specified areas and lines for defense.

Depending on the successful location of the enemy's strong and dangerous groups, additional nuclear strikes by front and army means are launched against them. The enemy's nuclear delivery means, groups of his tank troops and his vital command posts are destroyed in first priority. In case of availability of nuclear weapons, nuclear strikes are also delivered on the enemy's approaching reserves, as well as on airfields, crossings, on the enemy's communications routes, and on other targets.

The enemy may attempt to break through quickly the resistance of the front's first-echelon troops and to penetrate through the unoccupied areas into the operational rear. To avoid such enemy action, a part of armies' reserves or even front's reserves should be employed to establish quickly and secretly defensive positions on advantageous lines on the axes threatened by the enemy. For this purpose, first the mobile antitank reserves and mobile obstacle detachment are moved, and engineer obstacles are installed on the threatened axes.

The main efforts of the front's forces are concentrated on quick and decisive destruction of attacking enemy troops in the defensive zones of first-echelon divisions. This is insured by the use of nuclear strikes and fires of conventional weapons, as well as through firm holding of defensive lines on the axes of the enemy's attacks and also by the conduct of surprise counterattacks.

When the operation is conducted with the employment of nuclear weapons, the situation will normally be quickly changing on the ground and in the air. On one axis they might not only succeed in penetrating into the defensive zone of first-echelon divisions, but the enemy might make a breakthrough up to the entire operational depth, while on another axis the enemy may only succeed to penetrate into the defense of the first-echelon troops. Still, on some individual axes, the enemy's attack might be stopped directly in front of the FEBA. Generally the troops will be engaged in a series of scattered defensive combat. Under such circumstances, the front and army commanders are required to show resourcefulness and exceptional artfulness in effective troop control and be in constant coordination with the operations of all combat arms for the joint accomplishment of the combat mission.

The defending troops should limit and contain enemy maneuvers through firm defense of vital lines and through the use of engineer obstacles to force the enemy to attack on the axes which are advantageous for defending troops. Subsequently, they should launch powerful nuclear strikes and use conventional weapons, inflicting decisive losses on the enemy. When the enemy succeeds in making a breakthrough on a number of axes, the threat of penetration into the operational rear arises. The main efforts of the front means, particularly those of nuclear weapons, should be concentrated against the enemy's main grouping, and not on other areas where the enemy is attacking with relatively fewer troops. Fighting with the enemy can be conducted by the troops and means of the front's first-echelon armies. Only after the destruction of the enemy's main grouping can the front's means be shifted to other axes.

In the course of defensive combat the commanders and staffs of all echelons constantly should focus their attention on the protection of troops from the enemy's nuclear and chemical weapons, and on eliminating the impact of such weapons. The first priority measures are for the restoration of the combat capabilities of troops, of troop control, and of interrupted coordination systems on the axis of the enemy's main attack. To restore combat capabilities of the first-echelon armies operating on important axes, front reserves and large units from the axes not seriously threatened are moved to the affected area and employed for that purpose.

In the operation with employment of nuclear weapons the front's counterblow is better launched against both flanks of the enemy's grouping which has penetrated into the defense. In such situations the counterblow can be launched from the front (as a frontal blow) to break up enemy groupings into pieces, subsequently destroying them individually.

Such a counterblow can be used when there is a sufficient number of nuclear weapons in the front, and when the approach of the front's second-echelon troops and reserves to the flanks of the enemy's grouping is difficult due to terrain condition or time factor. In some cases the counterblow can be launched by part of the troops from the flank while another part counterattacks from the front.

In conducting the front's counterblow rocket troops, air armies, second-echelon troops, front's reserves, as well as parts of the first-echelon armies are called to participate. In the process of establishing the grouping of forces for the counterblow it must be considered that the first-echelon of such a grouping must be strong and as many tank units as possible should be included in the first-echelon to exploit quickly the result of nuclear strikes.

The principal form of troop action during the counterblow is the deployment of large units, units from the line of march, and initiation of the blow (attack) from the move. It must be noted that this form of action requires that certain measures are taken in advance such as: extension and/or establishment of movement routes and deployment lines; covering of the deployment of counterblowing grouping against the enemy's air strikes; tank attacks; and allocation of necessary forces with the means to inflict losses on the enemy in the sectors of counterblow.

The success of a counterblow is broadly determined by the number and wise employment of nuclear rounds. In the course of the defensive operation nuclear rounds must be used sparingly so that the front achieves the capability to inflict decisive losses on the enemy just before the initiation of the counterblow. The counterblow should be initiated by launching massive nuclear strikes on enemy forces which have penetrated into the defense and primarily on the enemy's nuclear means, armored troops, command posts, and enemy's immediate reserves. The counterblow also is initiated by artillery preparatory fire.

During the conduct of the counterblow, airborne assault units may be landed by helicopters to seize and destroy nuclear delivery means, command posts, communication centers, and to seize key areas (lines) on the routes of movement of the enemy reserves.

The expansion (reinforcement) of efforts during the counterblow are primarily effected by repeated nuclear and conventional weapons strikes, commitment of second-echelon troops and reserves of the counterattacking groupings and the employment of front reserves as well as by initiation of attack by forces defending the flanks of counterattacking grouping.

 

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