SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
FRONT OPERATIONS

This information is extracted from various lectures and is provided for the information of readers pending the preparation of a more comprehensive discussion of troop control.

I. Introduction

The decision is the basis of all actions taken to prepare and conduct an operation. The commander must concentrate and dedicate all of his talents and wisdom to make his best, rational decision. This will mostly depend on proper understanding of the concept ot the higher commander, the clear and proper studying of the goal and mission of the Front's offensive operation, an estimate of all aspects of th situation and operational anticipation. Studying to fully understand themission includes proper understanding of the goal, missions, objectives, role and position of the Front in strategic offensive operations, the missions of adjacent Fronts and of other elements of the armored forces.

Estimate of the situation:
The estimate includes the rational assessment and evaluation of the following factors:

- Enemy;
- Friendly forces (own forces);
- Adjacent forces (friendly forces);
- Terrain;
- Radioactive, chemical and biological situation;
- Situation of local population and economic situation of the area of operation;
-Weather (meteorological conditions) and the season of the year.


The Commander's decision includes the following:

- Concept of the operation: determining the main enemy grouping, the method of its destruction; the axis of the main attack and the axes supporting attacks; the operational formation; and the missions, targets and method of employment of nuclear weapons;
- Missions of combined arms and tank armies, rocket troops and artillery, air army, airborne and seaborne assault landing forces;
- Missions of air defense forces;
- Missions of various types of reserves;
- Coordination;
- Operational support measures;
- Command and Control.

II. Contents of the actions taken to prepare a Front offensive operation; circumstances in which the Front offensive operation is prepared:

Preparing the offensive operation comprises a number of complicated actions taken by the commander, staff, chiefs of combat arms and services, and also actions taken by rear services to organize and plan all types of rear service support in favor of the Front offensive operation. In this context the main actions are the following:
- Making the decision and planning the offensive operation;
- Assignment of missions to the troops and organization of coordination (interaction);
- Preparation of starting areas for the attack (attack position), command posts and a signal communication system;
- Procurement, supply and distribution of stores and supplies (material supplies);
- Organization and conduct of political affairs and coordination;
- Organization of all supporting and protective measures and command and control of the troops in the operation;
- Preparation of the troops for combat actions under various circumstances for the outbreak of war;
- Maintaining high combat readiness of the troops for the execution of assigned missions.


The Front offensive operations, to be conducted in the initial phase of war (at the outbreak of war), are prepared in advance during peacetime. Preparation of subsequent operations to be conducted during development of combat actions are prepared during or at the end of the initial operation.

III. The aim and missions of the Front in the offensive operation - the role of the Front in the strategic operation in the theater of strategic military action:


The role of the Front, meaning the extent of its participation in the destruction of enemy armed forces in the course of a strategic operation in the theater of strategic military action, depends on the concept of strategic operations, the content of the Front's missions, the combat formation, the level of the employment of nuclear weapons and the circumstances of cooperation (interaction) with other Fronts and armies. When studying the role of the Front in the strategic operation, close consideration should be made of the capabilities of nuclear weapons in the destruction of the enemy, as well as the capabilities of conventional weapons for this purpose. In modern conditions, in strategic operations, the Front plays the vital role in the destruction of the enemy.


The Front may operate in the first or second echelon of a strategic formation. The Front attacking in the first echelon produces a great impact in favor of the successful accomplishment of the strategic operation, menaing it destroys the main grouping of the enemy land and air forces, its rocket forces, reserves and air defense forces. The first-echelon Front attacks on the axis of the main attack, or other axes, in the center or flanks of the strategic grouping of forces. The second-echelon Front follows the first echelon and is committed into combat on the axis of the main attack.

The goal of Front offensive operation:


The goal of a Front offensive operation is the destruction of the grouping of enemy nuclear delivery means, enemy ground and air forces, the foiling of enemy mobilization, occupation of vital area in enemy territory, and outing of individual countries from the war. The goal of Front offensive operations is the same, with or without the employment of nuclear weapons. The goal of the operation with the employment of nuclear weapons is achieved through the delivering of nuclear strikes, along with the actions of conventional weapons, on the main groupings of enemy nuclear, ground and air forces and on other targets, and the exploitation of strategic nuclear weapons strikes by the Front and also through decisive and rapid attack. The goal of the operation without the employment of nuclear weapons is achieved by the employment of the entire fire power capability of artillery and air strikes for successive destruction of the enemy, coordinated with decisive attacks of large units (divisions) and operational formations (armies, army corps) and by the expansion of attacks and development of the attack on the vital axes.


The missions of the Fronts in offensive operations:


To achieve the goal of the operation, the Front is assigned the following missions:
- The initial nuclear strikes;
- Immediate mission and subsequent missions;


The mission of the initial nuclear strikes includes: the destruction of enemy tactical-operational nuclear delivery means; inflicting heavy casualties and damage on enemy main force, enemy air forces and air defense troops and means; destruction of enemy command posts and targets in the enemy logistical support system. The limits of action of Front and supreme command nuclear delivery means are specified.


The content of the immediate mission includes: destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means; destruction of enemy main grouping of forces and his tactical aircraft; seizing areas and objectives by which the operational integrity of the enemy defense is destroyed and favorable conditions and circumstances are provided for the Front forces to develop the attack.


The depth of the Front's immediate mission is 250-350 km.


The content of the subsequent mission includes: the destruction of newly-detected enemy nuclear delivery means, the destruction of enemy deep reserves, and seizing of areas and objectives in the depth of the TSMA by which the goal of the offensive operation is achieved.


The depth of the Front's subsequent mission may be 350-500 km.


The content of a Front's immediate and subsequent missions also includes the seizing and occupation of the enemy's administrative and political centers, capital cities, industrial centers, and ousting enemy allies (countries) from the war. (Isolating enemy allies to be entirely ousted from further interference in war actions.) Moreover, in naval theaters and montainous areas, the following are also included in the content of the Front's immediate and subsequent missions:
- In naval theaters, the destruction of enemy naval forces and occupation of islands, archipelegos, straits and seaports and the defense of sea coasts.
- In mountains areas, the destruction of an enemy's independent grouping defending the road junctions (communication centers), mountain passes, defiles ans other objective, by which accesses plains and wide valleys are seized by the Front forces.

IV. The content of the process of planning of a Front's offensive operation:


Planning is the important element in preparing the operation on the basis of which all troops and means are employed to succesfully achieve the goal of the operation. Planning of the operation is conducted by the Front staff on the basis of the Front commander's decision and his instructions on planning the operation. In planning, the entire content of the commander's decision is organized, the method and sequence of each task and mission is specified, the actions of the units and the expenditure of mateial resources for each mission are defined; the method of coordination of the troops in support of the accomplishment of each mission is specified; and matters concerning political affairs, combat support and protection, and command and control are organized.


Planning is worked out and phased on the basis of assigned missions, i.e., initial nuclear strikes, immediate mission, subsequent mission, with or without the employment of nuclear weapons. It is worked out in more detail for the phase of initial nuclear strikes and immediate mission, and in the utmost detail for the first day of the operation. The plan of operation is worked out on a map with an annex containing written instructions, or it can be prepared in written form with a map annex. The plan is personnally prepared by the chief of staff or chief of the operations. It is worked out on 1/500,000 or 1/200,000 maps and illustrates the following: - In written instructions: The assessment of the enemy and his likely actions; combat composition of the Front and its capabilities; relative balance of opposing forces; the goal and concept of the operation; availability and time of supplying of nuclear and chemical rounds; allocation of supporting capabilities; allocation of aircraft flights (sorties) to the missions executed by the armies; the methods to promote the safety of friendly troops during the nuclear bursts; and the method of conduct of preparatory fire.
- When the plan is prepared in written form, it will also include the deductions of the mission analysis (clarification of the mission); deductions of the estimate of the situation; the goal and concept of the operation; missions of all subordinate units, etc.


Annexes of the Plan are prepared for the following subjects:
- Plan of initial nuclear strikes;
- Plan of preparing and occupation of attack positions;
- Plan of operational concealment;
- Plan of the employment of airborne assault landings;


The chiefs of the Front's combat and combat support arms and services prepare and work out plans for the employment of their respective arms and services in the Front offensive operation on the basis of, and in compliance with, the decision of the Front commander.

V. Main parameters in the scale of Front and army offensive operations:


The main parameters in the scale of a Front offensive operation include the following. The main parameters in the scale of Front offensive operations are determined by the political and military situation, the goal of the operation, the strength of the Front in terms of the number of troops and capabilities, the enemy groupings, the condition of the theater of war and other factors.


The main parameters in the scale of a Front offensive operation are the following:
- Depth of the operation: 600-800 km or more.
- Average rate of advance: 40-60 km per day (24 hours). In attacking the enemy prepared defense it is 25-30 km per day; while in the rear of the prepared defense it is 60-70 km per day (24 hours).
- Duration (length of the operation); l2-l5 days.
- Width of attack zone: 300-400 km.


Parameters of scale of an army offensive operation are:
- Width of attack zone:
- In the west European theater of strategic military action, with four divisions in the army's first-echelon: 60-80 kms;
- In other areas: up to l00 kms.
- The rate of advance:
- Penetration of enemy prepared defense: 25-30 kms per day (24 hours).
- Penetration of fortified defense: 20-25 kms per day (24 hours).
- In the rear of enemy defenses: 60-70 km per day (24 hours)
- Average (without the employment of nuclear weapons): 40-60 km per day (24 hours)
- Depth of operation: 250-350 km
- Duration (lenth) of the operation: 6-9 days (24 hours)

VI. Commitment of second echelon of the Front into major combat in an offensive operation:

One of the decisive methods of developing the attack is the commitment of the Front's second-echelon forces into combat, which fundamentally changes the operational situation. The second- echelon army is committed into combat at the end of the immediate mission of the Front or at the beginning of its subsequent mission. The second- echelon army can even be committed into the combat in the early days of the operation. It is committed on the axis of the main attack or even on a new axes. Prior to the commitment of the Front's second-echelon into combat, decisive damage is inflicted on the enemy by artillery and air strikes to provide favorable conditions for rapid advance of the army in the rear of enemy defenses to enevelop and outflank enemy main forces or to occupy favorable terrain features in the TSMA The second-echelon army can be committed into combat either in the area of one or two first-echelon armies, or between two first-echelon armies, or in the graps which are created in the course of the conduct of offensive operation between the first-echelon armies, or in areas weakly covered by the enemy. The entire forces of the army or part of it can be committed into combat.

Reserve large units, and Front and army second-echelons, should be constantly prepared to deploy into combat and to execute combat missions. The commander and staffs must make sure to move up the second-echelon forces and reserves on time, and to maintain their combat capabilities. The movement of second-echelon forces and reserves, following the first- echelon, is conducted at night along a number of routes and is kept well- concealed.

VII. Encirclement of the enemy and destroying an encircled enemy:


Encirclement of a large enemy grouping of forces can be attampted and achieved in different and various situations and circumstances; particularly, it is more likely in the absence of an enemy extended front and the presence of possibilities of making bold maneuvers. Such conditions and circumstances can be as follows:

- At the beginning of war, following the nuclear strikes and deep penetration of strike groupins in the enemy defense along with the landing of airborne troops at the rear of enemy positions.;
- In the course of offensive operations in the rear of the enemy and the destruction of its operational reserves in meeting engagements;
- When the enemy is strongly holding vital areas (by enveloping and beseiging the enemy in such areas.)
- When the terrain conditions and natural obstacles favor the envelopment and destruction of the enemy. The envelopment and destruction of the enemy is conducted as a single action without establishing the internal external Fronts. Envelopment and destruction of the enemy is conducted in coordination with adjacent Fronts.


Nuclear strikes are delivered against the enemy and deep maneuvers are directed to its flanks. The enemy is enveloped, broken into pieces and eventually destroyed. The enemy will attempt to withdraw his forces from encirclement by inflicting damage on surrounding friendly forces, by destruction of routes and by calling its reserves and initiating maneuvers. Therefore, it is necessary that the encircled enemy grouping is kept under pressure by aircraft and SSM troop action, and that continuous attempts are made, day and night, to tighten the encirclement right around the enemy froces until they are totally destroyed or they surrender. Heavy casualties and damage are inflicted on the encircled enemy to destroy his morale and will be resist, and to force his surrender. At the same time, strikes are launched against enemy approaching reserves.


The Front commander specifies the grouping of forces, their missions, the attack axes, method of linking up in case of launching attacks from different axes against the same enemy grouping, nuclear and air strikes. The Front commander also specifies the missions of air forces and air defense troops, establishes the system of coordination and mutual identification and prevents the approach (advance) of enemy reserves. The enemy is prevented from withdrawl of its forces from the encirclement. Therefore reserves, anti-tank reserves and mobile obstacle detachments are called for action against the enemy, attacks are launched against the encircled enemy, who is broken into pieces and destroyed.


The enemy which has been pushed against the sea should be deprived of possible assistance via the sea. Therefore, his supply and evacuation lines are destroyed and the enemy is eventually destroyed with the cooperation of naval fleets. In case the enemy is pushed against the mountains, water obstacles or marshes, the withdrawal routes and passages of the enemy troops should be blocked. When the enemy is strongly defending a specific area and has constituted defensive lines around the area, attempts should be made to break enemy defensive lines by nuclear and air strikes, defenses are penetrated at weak points, and eventually the enemy is destroyed in its entrapped area. In such cases simultaneous attacks are launched against the defending enemy and the enemy forces outside the encirclement ring.


The air army and air defense troops do not allow the enemy to be supplied, rather they isolate the encircle enemy forces. Enemy transport aircraft and air fields are destroyed. The main efforts of friendly air defense troops and means are concentated to cover the main grouping of forces and rear services installatons.


When two Fronts are operating to destroy the encircled enemy forces, close coordination between them is established on the basis of instructions of supreme command. Detailed and accurate reconnaissance is organized during the encircling operation to disclose enemy groupings and likely courses of action.

VIII. Organization for the penetration of prepared enemy defenses in the course of the Front's offensive operation without the employment of nuclear weapons:


Depending on the situation, the initiation of attack by the Front forces is conducted either from forward assembly areas or from attack positions or from assembly areas occupied by the troops on combat alert by subsequently marching to the combat area, or from the positions of close contact with the enemy after repelling enemy attack. The attack normally is preceded by artillery and air forces preparatory fire.


At the outbreak of war, the attacking forces may have to break through the enemy defenses of different degrees of preparation including an enemy prepared defense. The enemy normally establishes defensive lines in the theaters of action well in advance, and reinforces them with engineer constructions, and fortification and obstacles. Modern military forces are capable of preparing defensive positions rapidly with a great density of anti-tank weapons and strong fire systems.


The destruction of such an enemy position should be attempted by neutralization of its defenses in the area of penetration and its flanks through artillery fires and air strikes; enemy immediate reserves, artillery and command posts should be neutralized by air strikes; the attcking elements must be continuously supported and the actions on the decisive axis should be developed and expanded.


Decisive superiority in troops and combat power must be established against the enemy on the specified decisive axis. When specifying the striking axes and the penetration zone, close consideration must be made of the combat capabilities of combat units and the required density of troops and combat power should be established. Therefore, the penetrating action of the troops could be enhanced by consideration of the emeployment of nuclear weapons.


The Front initiates the breakthrough of enemy defnese in two zones, one of which is the main zone of the penetration. The width of the zone of breakthrough should not be less than 20-25 km so that 2-3 divisions can be committed simultaneously to develop the attack. The army initiates the breakthrough on a 8-l0 km of frontage. The breakthrough is conducted either from the march, initially by forward detachments, and subsequently by the main forces, or by the main forces of the first-echelon following brief preparations.


The requirements of artillery support for the breakthrough is determined by the number of targets, the width of the zone of penetration, norms of artillery requirements per target, the type of national divisions of enemy forces (divisions of different countries) and the organization of artillery groupings. 90-l00 or ll0-l20 guns and mortars are required to penetrate on one km of front (90-l00 or ll0-l20 guns and mortars per km of front is the norm for artillery support and density in a breakthrough operation - in the zone of penetration).


The duration of prepartory fire is determined by the nature of enemy defense, the availability of artillery, or by the distance from the line of deployment into the battalion columns to the line of initiating the penetration of enemy defense. It is usually 30-40 minutes. All firing means including tanks and anti-tank guided missiles, which are conducting direct fires, are employed in the preparatory fires. During the preparatory fire, the enemy artillery and mortar batteries, defensive positions of first-echelon battalions, command posts, radars and brigades reserves are neutralized by artillery and the deeper targets (reserves, artillery and command posts) are neutralized by the aircraft. The assault is launched precisely at "H" hour, the tanks and infantry penetrates into the enemy defense and develop the attack to the rear of enemy dispositions.


The speed of penetration is largely dependent on the extent of neutralization of the eney defense by fires; therefore, the enemy defense should be sufficiently neutralized in its entire depth, at the beginning and in course of the conduct of the attack. The anti-tank weapons in company defensive positions and in the depth of battalion and brigade areas should be neutralized. The enemy forces should be broken into pieces and isolated from each other, and the attack should be rapidly developed in the rear. Artillery conducts fires in support of the attack, while aircraft delivery strikes on targets located in relatively greater depth. In this case the multi- rocket artillery plays an important role in inflicting heavy losses on approaching enemy reserves. The attack is continued through by-poasing enemy resistance points. Prior to the arrival of attacking elements at the subsequent enemy defensive lines in the rear, artillery fires and air strikes should be directed against them and subsequently such defensive lines should be penetrated from the march.

IX. Selection of the axis of main attack in Front and army offensive operations in mountainous or desert areas:


The axis of main attack is the axis on which the main efforts of Front or army are concentrated to accomplish the missions in the attack. Large units (divisions and above) and operational formations (armies) with higher maneuver capabilities are concentrated on the axis of main attack to destory enemy nuclear delivery means and groupings of forces and to seize vital areas and objectives. On other axes, the rest of the troops are employed to destory the enemy groupings and to seize areas and objectives in order to ensure the accomplishment of important missions in the operation.


Proper selection of the axis of the main attack is of vital importance in achieving the objective of the oepration in a short time. The number of attacking axes can be different; there may be two to three or more in the zone of the Front's offensive operation, one of which will be the axis of main attack where the main efforts of Front forces (strike groupings, particularly the tanks, artillery and air forces) are concentrated. Superiority in troops and means are estalished against the enemy on the axis of the main attack.


The axis of main attack is specified to the depth of the immediate mission and sometimes it is specified for the entire depth of operation. The axis of main attack can be shifted in the couse of the conduct of the operation. The axis of main attack should provide for the arrival of the troops to the flanks and rear of the main forces of the enemy, and should provide the shortest ways to the rear of enemy territory and vital objectives, the seizure of which can facilitate the achievement of the objective of the operaiton. The axis of the main attack should favor the possibilities of troop maneuver and should lead into the weak points of the enemy positions such as the flanks, gaps in enemy's combat formation, etc. In absence of maneuvering possibilities by troops (terrain and other limitations), the axis of the main attack can be directed against the strong grouping of enemy forces on which decisive damage are inflicted by nuclear strikes and artillery fires and which facilitates the arrival of friendly forces at vital objectives and areas in the enemy territory. The axis of main attack in terms of terrain conditions is selected in areas suitable for the maneuver of tank troops. The selection of the axis of main attack and other axes is also affected by the disposition of friendly forces and time factors, such as regroupment which requires a large amount of time. The axis of main attack should be properly selected and specified on the basis of close consideration of different factors and necessary grouping of forces should be established on the axis.


In situations where the employment of nuclear weapon is anticipated, a great superiority in troops and combat capability against the enemy and concentration of a large number of troops on the axis of the main attack are not required. But in case of non-employment of nucler weapons, such superiority and concentration is to be established. In the latter case, the troops should be dispersed to make them less vulernable against enemy expected nuclear attacks. They should be densely concentrated only when closing to attack (penetrate) the enemy defense from the march, and then they should once again disperse after breaking through the enemy defense.

X. Characteristics of conducting a Front offensive operation in mountainous terrain:


Offensive operations in mountainous areas are difficult military actions because combat capabilities of the units and troops become limited by terrain restrictions. The attack is conducted on separate axes, the artillery is employed in more decentralized form. The size of the troops (grouping of troops) on each axis is proportioned with the capacity for deployment of troops. The artillery groups of regiments and divisions are more strongly estab- lished. The regiments are reinforced by long-range artillery units (which are attached to the regiments). The artillery groups of the divisions are established on main axes. The army artillery group is not established.


For the purpose of destruction of enemy permanent strong fortifications, their destruction phases are incorporated in the sequence of conducting the artillery preparatory fire. 120 mm and larger calibre guns are employed for such destruction. The air forces destroy enemy nuclear weapons and grouping of forces should be established on the axis. In situations where the employment of nuclear weapon is anticipated, a great superiority in troops and combat capability against the enemy and concentration of a large number of troops on the axis of the main attack are not required. But in case of non-employment of nucler weapons, such superiority and concentration is to be established. In the latter case, the troops should be dispersed to make them less vulernable against enemy expected nuclear attacks. They should be densely concentrated only when closing to attack (penetrate) the enemy defense from the march, and then they should once again disperse after breaking through the enemy defense. The size of the forces (grouping of troops) on each axis is proportioned to the capacity of the route for deployment of troops. The artillery groups of regiments and divisions are more strongly established. The regiments are reinforced by long-range artillery units (which are attached to the regiments). The artillery groups of the divisions are established on main axes. The army artillery group is not established. For the purpose of destruction of enemy permanent strong fortifications, their destruction phases are incorporated in the sequence of conducting the artillery preparatory fire. Limited tank troops are also employed to seize the passes from the front. Tank troops are employed in small groups. Special detachments an also be employed to seize the passes. Such detachments are mounted on fast-moving vehicles and are reinforced by tanks, guns and engineer troops. The enemy reserves and assembly areas are hit by air strikes during the advance of the detachment to the mountain pass and then the pass is attacked from the front or flanks. Large meeting engagements are likely to occur in mountains, in the course of which attempts are made to direct blows against the flanks and rear of the enemy. If such attacks are not possible then the main forces attack the enemy from the front, while enveloping detachments and airborne assault landing troops are employed against enemy flanks and rear. The enemy should be prevented from occupying new defensive positions at the rear. The enemy's attempts at this maneuver should be dealth with by air strikes and the actions of enveloping detachments and airborne assault landing troops.


An appropriate grouping of units in relation to the tactical- operational space of the combat area is established and specified in advance for each axis. The artillery groups of regiments and divisions are organized to be strong enough on each axis to make the attack on that axis self- sufficient in terms of fire support. Heavy casualties and damage are inflicted on the enemy by artillery fires and air strikes on the axes of main attacks, in mountain passes, defiles, etc, The artillery preparatory fires are initiated at different times on different axes. They are organized and carried out on the basis of the requirements on each axis. During artillery preparatory fires, enemy strong points (defensive positions) located on road junctions are neutralized sufficiently. The units attacking on the main axis should coordinate their attack with the actions of enveloping detachments and airborne assault landing troops to envelop the enemy main groupings of forces and to outflank them by turning movements. Since, in mountainous terrain, maneuvers to the flanks and rear of the enemy are not possible in the case of a meeting engagement, enveloping detachments and airborne assault landings are employed widely.


Artillery and air strikes are delivered against enemy defensive positions located on road junctions, defiles, passes and crossings. After the destruction of the enemy at the border areas, the attack is exploited along the valleys and plains while the flanks of attacking axes are covered against enemy counterblows. Since maneuver and shifting of the troops from one axis to another will be difficult in an attack in mountains, special efforts should be made at the beginning to establish balanced and self-sufficient groupings of troops in accordance with the capacity and tactical deployment space on each axis. To avoid surprise enemy counterattacks, air and land reconnaissance is established and some troops are detached to dominant ground features in order to protect the flanks of friendly advancing units. When the attack is conducted along the valleys and over plains, some elements are detached as "enveloping detachments" to the rugged part of the terrain in order to envelop and outflank the enemy from such unexpected axes and to cooperate with the units attacking from the front, thus aiding in encirclement of the enemy. Concentration of the troops in mountain passes, defiles and narrow valleys is avoided.

The second-echelon forces are committed into combat after reaching the wide plain. Routes are constructed for their deployment and they are covered against enemy air strikes. The second-echleon forces are committed into combat on one or more axes, eventually joining together. In order to seize mountain passes and defiles, forward detachments of assault helicopter troops or parachute landing troops are employed, or the methods of envelopment and turning movements are applied. Air strikes, enveloping detachments and assault airborne landings are employed to restrict the movement of enemy reserves to reinforce enemy defenses or to occupy defensive positions in passes and defiles. When the units reach wide valleys (plains) and mountain plateaus, it is more likely that the enemy will launch counterattacks. The destruction and neutralization of enemy counterattacking troops are attempted in accordance with the conditions of the situation and terrain conditions. In this case, initially air and artillery strikes are delivered against the enemy and then his counterattacks are repelled from the march or by taking up positions against them. When the withdrawal of enemy forces is noticed, they must be immediately prusued without waiting for the orders of higher echelon. The enemy should not be allowed to reestablish defenses on favaroable lines for delaying action. Against key features such as mountain passes and defiles, assault airborne landing troops and eveloping detachments are employed in the rugged areas. The pursuit of the retreating enemy, in favorable areas, is organized on paralled axes. For this purpose, units with higher maneuvering capabilities are employed and they continue to strike the retreating enemy from the rear.