SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
ARMY OPERATIONS

I GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF THE ARMY'S DEFENSIVE OPERATION

Role of the Defensive Operation and Conditions of the Army's Taking up the Defense

Defense in contemporary wars is a forced and temporary form of combat action. Defensive operations, in general, are used in support and in the interest of the aims of offensive action.

The important role of an army's defensive operation is to create conditions for friendly forces to initiate the offensive or to resume an attack stopped by the enemy). Defensive operations are conducted to inflict losses on the enemy's strongest groupings of forces and to support the conduct of a decisive offensive operation by large units and formations on important directions of the TSMA.

The experience of the Great Patriotic War indicates that conditions for assuming the defense by the army and the conditions for its conduct may be different. They are determined by the following:
----- - specific conditions of the situation, primarily the composition, combat capabilities, and characteristics of the actions of friendly and enemy troops;
----- - correlation of forces and means in the army's area and in the area of operation of adjacent operational formations;
----- - type of weapons used (nuclear or conventional
----- - importance of the defended direction and the concept of the defensive operation;
----- - physical and geographic character and conditions of the area and availability of time for preparation of the defense.

During the Great Patriotic War (Second World War) the army often assumed the defense in the context of the front defensive operation. It also took up the defensive during, or in crucial phases of front offensive operations such as:
----- - when the enemy launched counterblows (counterattacks);
----- - when the enemy initiated a counteroffensive to delay the advance of friendly forces;
----- - when restoring the initial situation in part of the area of the front's operation.

Armies have also conducted defensive operations to maintain a bridgehead or to repel enemy attacks trying to break out of encirclement.

According to the theory of the Soviet art of war, in contemporary wars the defense is conducted when attack is not possible because of various reasons or when attack is not wise and favorable under actual circumstances. Defense is also used when economy of forces and means is required in the interest of offensive action on other important directions.

An army's defensive operation may be prepared prior to the initiation of the war on likely directions of the enemy's aggressive attack in the territories of the USSR or in other friendly countries. It may also be prepared during the conduct of combat actions. The army defensive operation may be in the context of the front's offensive operation in the following specific phases:
----- - at the beginning;
----- - during the operation;
----- - at the end of the front offensive operation.

An army's defensive operation may also be a part of the front's offensive operation. According to the field regulation manual, defense may be assumed in conditions of direct contact with the enemy or without such contact with enemy forces. Defensive operations may be conducted with the use of conventional or nuclear weapons.

On the basis of the instructions of the high commander, the army may take up the defense in peacetime in advance (during the period of the developing risk of war), on the borders to repel likely enemy aggressions on friendly territory. This creates favorable conditions for the offensive.

The army may take up the defense in advance on naval directions or on exposed coasts where a landing of the enemy's seaborne assault troops is likely. It may also initiate the defense to cover individual directions on neutral country's borders from the territories of which the strikes of enemy groupings of forces may be launched.

At the beginning of the front's offensive operation, the army may assume the defense in a situation in which the enemy succeeds in establishing a superiority of forces and means in that army's direction. In this case, according to the concept of the front's offensive operation, the army is assigned to repel the attack of superior enemy troops and to support the conduct of the attack of friendly troops on other directions. The need for assuming the defense by the army at the beginning of the front's offensive operation may also emerge when the enemy imposes maximum losses on friendly forces in the following ways:
----- - surprise nuclear and massive air force strikes;
----- - forestalls and overtakes friendly forces in deployment;
----- - initiates the offensive action by his superior forces.

During the conduct of the front's offensive operation, the army may assume the defense when the following occurs:
----- - it has not achieved success in a meeting engagement;
----- - during the operation it fails to destroy the counterblow (counterattack) of large enemy forces;
----- - the army forces suffer heavy losses and can not successfully continue the attack.

In these cases, the army is forced to take up the defense. During the conduct of the front's offensive operations on maritime (coastal) directions the army may be assigned to establish coastal defenses. The army often assumes the defense to repel the attack of superior enemy forces.

Assumption of defense by the army during the conduct of the offensive operation is often conducted under difficult ground and air situations and under enemy strikes. When the enemy takes up the defense it will normally have shortages in forces and means. Meanwhile, the army's large units will be operating at different depths on separate directions, the main forces will be engaged in combat, troops will be suffering from great losses, and a number of large units and units may have great shortages in rear service support.

Army elements operating on different directions may not take up the defense simultaneously. At first large units and units which are facing unfavorable situations take up the defense along the line reached by the troops. Meanwhile, on individual directions, individual groupings of forces will continue the attack seizing certain lines the occupation of which improves the army's operational situation and supports the firmness of the defense. Part of the army's troops may be engaged in destroying enemy airborne assault troops dropped in the rear of friendly forces.

The army assumes and conducts the defense normally in coordination (interaction) with the following:
----- - adjacent armies;
----- - rocket troops;
----- - air forces;
----- - air defense troops;
----- - reserves;
----- - other troops and means of the front;
----- - naval directions (with naval forces).

On individual operational directions and in specific terrain or other conditions the army may prepare and conduct the defensive operation independently or with the support of part of the front's forces. Even under normal conditions the army for some time will have to repel enemy attacks (counterattacks) with only its own troops and means and without participation (contribution) from front or adjacent armies' means. This situation develops under the following conditions:
----- - when the front concentrates its main efforts, out of necessity, on enemy groupings of forces not in the army area but on other directions;
----- - when front reserves are not available at the actual time;
----- - when the front faces greater danger of enemy attack (counterattack) in other directions.

In the front's defensive operation, the army may operate in the front's first- or second-echelon. When defending in the front's first-echelon, the army may operate on the main or other directions. The front's second-echelon army is normally assigned to launch the front's counterblow (counterattack) and to initiate the attack.

In the front's offensive operation the army conducts the defensive operation in a situation in which the front's main forces conduct the attack.

The army operating on the main direction in the front's first-echelon, normally defends on one operational direction on which the attack of large enemy forces is expected or conducted. The most important operational direction may be defended by several armies. In directions with particular physical and geographic conditions, the army defends several operational directions.

II THE AIM OF THE DEFENSIVE OPERATION AND MISSIONS OF THE ARMY IN DEFENSE

The aim of the defensive operation and missions of the army in the operation are determined by the general concept of the front operation and conditions of the situation developed in the direction of the army's action.

The principal aims of the army's defensive operation in contemporary times are the following:
----- - repel the attack (invasion--counterattack) of superior enemy forces;
----- - inflict maximum losses;
----- - protect and cover our own forces;
----- - support the development of the attack on important directions;
----- - maintain (hold) vital operational lines and areas;
----- - create favorable conditions for the initiation of the attack by our own forces;
----- - cover the flanks of the main groupings of front forces.

In offensive operations conducted with the use of nuclear weapons, one of the aims of the army assuming the defense will be to restore combat capabilities of the forces which have suffered such heavy losses that they are not capable of developing the attack.

The principal aim of the defensive operation is achieved by accomplishment of the following missions by the army forces:
----- - destroying enemy nuclear attack means and infiltrating losses on the main groupings while they are approaching, and during their deployment for the attack;
----- - repelling the attack of the large groupings of enemy forces, repelling enemy air strikes, and maintaining vital (critical) terrain lines and areas;
----- - destroying enemy groupings of forces penetrating (breaking through) to the depth of the defense and creating conditions for the initiation of the attack.

The principle missions of the army's defense on seacoast directions are as follows:
----- - repelling enemy landing seaborne assault troops;
----- - repelling the attack of enemy marine forces along the seacoast;
----- - repelling the strikes of enemy naval and air forces;
----- - destroying landed enemy seaborne and airborne assault troops;
----- - maintaining occupied areas on the seacoast, as well as the flanks and rear of the ground forces.

The army will accomplish its missions in different forms depending on the following conditions of assuming the defense:
----- - composition;
----- - capability and operational situation of friendly forces;
----- - composition and characteristics of the actions of the attacking enemy;
----- - types of weapons to be used.

Inflicting losses on enemy main force groupings as early as during their approach movement and deployment for the attack is insured by the following:
----- - nuclear and chemical weapons;
----- - air strikes;
----- - artillery fire using the maximum range of available means.

In order to inflict losses on the enemy main groupings preparing for the attack, the army will conduct a counterpreparatory fire (and sometimes, following the counterpreparatory fire, the strike of large units and units in front of the forward edge of the defense). As the enemy initiates the attack, all weapons including tanks, antitank weapons, and infantry weapons supported by engineer obstacles are used to inflict maximum losses. Destruction of enemy groupings of forces which have penetrated into the defense is conducted by the committed troops and means. Simultaneously, they firmly hold the critical areas and conduct counterattacks and counterblows.

A combined arms army (4-5 divisions) may be assigned to defend an area 100-150 km wide on the main direction depending on the following:
----- - actual situation;
----- - enemy groupings;
----- - composition and status of friendly forces
----- - characteristics of terrain.

In TSMAs and directions with special types of terrain (mountains, desert, northern regions, seacoasts, etc.) the army is capable of defending on a wider front.

The depth of the army's defense area may reach up to 100-150 km and more. This provides for a dispersed deployment of first-echelon large units, rocket troops and reserves, and the establishment of defensive lines and positions in the operational depth.

In order to delay enemy heavy strikes by using all means of combat, the modern defense must meet certain important requirements. The defense must be firm, active, and must have antinuclear and antitank resistance. It must resist nuclear strikes and other mass-destruction weapons, air strikes, and artillery fires. It must repel massive attacks by tanks, prevent the landing and action of enemy airborne assault troops, and destroy enemy troops which have penetrated into the depth of the defense.

In defense, the sustainability, resistance, and firmness of the defending troops is extremely important. The troops absolutely cannot leave the lines (positions) they hold and cannot retreat (withdraw) without the higher commander's orders. They must be ready to continue actions in situations where they are out of tactical communication range with the large units and when they are encircled by the enemy.

One of the decisive conditions which insures activeness and firmness in the defense and hence, success in the defensive operation is combat training and high morale of the defending troops. Therefore, while taking up the defense, maintaining constant morale superiority of the friendly forces over the enemy is increasingly important.

III ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DEFENSE

Establishment of the army's defense includes the following:
----- - operational formation (disposition) of the troops and their system of defensive belts (lines);
----- - preparing strikes of nuclear and chemical weapons;
----- - fire system of conventional means;
----- - air defense systems;
----- - engineer installations of the army.

The army must always establish its defense in accordance with the concept of the defensive operation and must provide the following:
----- - effective use of all troops and means;
----- - active air defense and protection of the troops from mass-destruction weapons;
----- - resistance and sustainability of the defense in terms of antitank resistance and holding of critical lines (areas);
----- - full exploitation of maneuver capabilities of the army troops to expand rapidly the massing of the troops and means for meeting the attacking enemy and to inflict decisive losses on him;
----- - easy and continuous interaction and troop control of defending forces.

The establishment of the defense, the method of its preparation, and the composition of the forces and means to conduct the defense would each have specific characteristics under each specific conditions depending on the conditions of the initiation of defense.

Under all conditions the groupings of forces and means and the establishment of the defense must not be stereotyped. They must have a varied nature. They should not present a standard pattern order to deceive the enemy and force him to deliver his nuclear and conventional strikes on areas not occupied by friendly forces.

On each direction a different form of combat formation of troops and means must be used in accordance with the requirements of terrain conditions and the situation. But at the same time the groupings of defending forces must be capable of repelling the attack of superior enemy forces with or without the use of nuclear weapons. When the defense is established with the use of only conventional weapons, it is still necessary to meet all requirements for a defense under the conditions of the employment of nuclear weapons.

The operational formation (disposition--layout) of the army forces in defense depends on the following:
----- - aim of the operation and army missions;
----- - composition of enemy groupings of forces;
----- - the character of his actions;
----- - terrain conditions;
----- - other aspects of the situation.

The operational formation may be formed in one or two echelons. It includes the following:
----- - first-echelon large units;
----- - second-echelon or combined arms reserves;
----- - groupings of rocket and artillery troops;
----- - air defense troops;
----- - engineer and chemical troops attached to the army;
----- - various reserves (antitank, engineer, and chemical) and mobile obstacle detachment (POZ).

In order to insure firmness (sustainability) and activeness of the defense in contemporary times. The army's operational formation and the combat formations of large units and units operating on the main direction of the attack of enemy striking groupings must be deep. The depth of the defensive formation must provide for the following:
----- - reinforcement of resistance against the enemy;
----- - unhampered maneuver of the troops particularly maneuver of second-echelon troops and reserves;
----- - dispersion of the troops to insure their protection against mass-destruction weapons.

Consistent with the operational formation, the defensive area of the army is supported by engineer installations which include the following:
----- - first defense belt (polasa) occupied by first-echelon large units;
----- - the second and third defense belts (army's lines) prepared for second-echelon (combined arms reserve) large units;
----- - position areas for rocket troops and air defense rockets;
----- - fire positions of artillery and air defense artillery;
----- - assembly areas of reserves;
----- - blocking (osechnie) lines (positions) and lines of deployment of second-echelon troops and reserves;
----- - areas of deployment for units of army special troops;
----- - command posts;
----- - army rear service installations and units;
----- - routes for the maneuver of troops and for supply and evacuation;
----- - system of engineer obstacles.



First-Echelon

The first-echelon forces of the army are assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - repel enemy attacks;
----- - inflict losses on attacking enemy groupings;
----- - prevent the enemy's penetration into the depth of the defenses;
----- - maintain critical terrain lines.

Maintaining critical terrain lines in itself would provide conditions for the destruction of enemy forces, which may penetrate into the depth of the defense. Counterblows by second-echelon troops or combined arms reserves would be employed in this case.

The number of divisions assigned to the second-echelon depends on the following:
----- - width of the army sector;
----- - army's missions;
----- - significance of the defended direction;
----- - conditions of the initiation of defense;
----- - status of the opposing forces.

First-echelon large units, establish for their defensive belt (pervoi polsa) which often would be the main defensive belt. Thus, the division will hold three or more defensive positions (pozitsi), regiments will defend in two, and battalions in one defensive position (pozitsi).

The basis of each one of these defensive positions (pozitsi) is constituted by infantry and tank company strongpoints (opornei ponkt) integrated into the battalion defensive area. They are interconnected with one another in terms of front and depth, by a unified system of fire and obstacle systems. The depth of each position may reach two kilometers. The distance between positions may be different, and may reach five kilometers. Given this depth, the depth of regiment defenses may reach ten kilometers, while the depth of division defensive belts (polasa) may reach twenty-five kilometers.

The width of the defensive belt (polasa) of the motorized rifle (tank) divisions on the direction of the enemy's main attack may reach thirty kilometers, of the regiment ten kilometers, and of the battalion five kilometers.

On the most important direction, at a distance of 3-5 km in front of the forward line (perednie krye), forward positions (peredovoi pozitsi) may be established which are held by subunits detached from first-echelon regiments. The forward position is assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - deceive the enemy about defensive layouts (postroenie);
----- - surprise attacks;
----- - force the enemy to deploy his forces prematurely.

In front of the first defensive belt a security belt (polasa obespichenie) with a depth of 15-20 km and sometimes more, may be established. This belt is created to accomplish the following: ----- - delay enemy advances;
----- - force the enemy to deploy and attack on unfavorable directions;
----- - detect and disclose enemy groupings intentions and objectives.

The security belt (polasa) is defended by forward detachments (peredovoi otryud) composed of infantry and tank subunits (units). It is assigned from first-echelon divisions and sometimes from the elements of one division.

At the beginning of the war, while initiating defenses on the border areas, the security belt is occupied and defended by forces assigned to cover the movement and deployment of the army's main forces.

The selection of the forward line (FLOT) and establishment of the defense of first-echelon large units, greatly depend on the condition of passing over to defense. First-echelon forces take up the defense in the course of the conduct of the attack. The defense is established on lines reached by these troops and sometimes after the seizure of favorable terrain lines further on. In some cases on individual directions or in the entire area of army defenses, it is better to establish the first defensive belt within the depth of friendly territory on favorable terrain lines under cover of the forward units.

The forward line (FLOT) is designated by the army commanders and confirmed on the terrain by division (regiment) commanders. The number of defensive positions (pozitsi) in the defensive belt (polasa) of each large unit and their location (alignment) are determined and specified by the division commanders.



Army Second-Echelon

The army's second-echelon is assigned, as a rule, to launch counterblows (kontre odar) during defensive combat. Part of the second-echelon troops or all of them may be employed to firmly hold defensive lines. Their mission will be to destroy enemy airborne troops or to destroy groupings which have penetrated into the defense.



Combined Arms Reserve

The combined arms reserve is usually established when the creation of second-echelon forces is not possible. The combined arms reserve is assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - conduct counterblows;
----- - reinforce troops operating on the main direction;
----- - relieve units who have lost their combat capability;
----- - destroy enemy groupings which have penetrated into the defense;
----- - destroy enemy airborne troops;
----- - conduct other unexpected missions which may arise during the defensive operation.

The army, employing second-echelon forces or army reserves, establishes in the operational depth 1-2 defense lines. They will be at a distance of 50-70 km from one another and at the same distance from the forward line (FLOT) of the first defense belt.

Operational defense lines are selected in accordance with the following:
----- - characteristics of the terrain;
----- - character of likely enemy actions;
----- - maneuver of friendly forces;
----- - general concept of the army's defensive operation.



Rocket Troops

The grouping of rocket troops is established by providing full use of their combat capabilities in the army's area. This is particularly important during the delivery of massive nuclear strikes.

The principal tasks of the rocket troops in the defensive operation are as follows:
----- - destruction of enemy nuclear means;
----- - infliction of losses on enemy main forces by hitting them with nuclear and chemical rounds (when such weapons are used);
----- - disruption of enemy troop control;
----- - destruction of enemy air defense means;
----- - infliction of losses on enemy seaborne assault troops (when defense is conducted on the sea coasts);
----- - disruption of enemy rear service activities.

The army rocket brigade is assigned the main position areas along with 1-2 alternate position areas. Position areas are selected at the flanks of the likely directions of attacks of enemy main groupings. They will be at a distance of 60-80 km or more from the forward line (FLOT).



Artillery Groupings

Artillery groupings include the regiment, division, and army artillery groups. The army artillery may be established on the direction of enemy main attacks by using army artillery and artillery attached to the army. The army artillery group is assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - destroy enemy tactical nuclear delivery mean;
----- - conduct struggle against enemy artillery;
----- - reinforce the artillery of first-echelon divisions;
----- - destroy the enemy during counterblows.

The principal tasks of artillery during the defensive operation are as follows:
----- - destroy enemy nuclear means and artillery;
----- - prevent the approach and deployment of enemy forces trying to launch the attack;
----- - participate in counterpreparatory fire;
----- - inflict losses on the enemy in his Fup areas for the attack;
----- - destroy enemy infantry and tanks during enemy attack;
----- - destroy enemy command posts and rear service targets;
----- - participate in the destruction of enemy airborne and seaborne assault troops.



Air Force

In the army's defensive operation the air force is to accomplish the following:
----- - participate in counterpreparatory fire;
----- - provide air support for combat actions of the troops while repulsing enemy attacks and during counterblows of friendly troops;
----- - participate in cooperation (interaction) with army and front air defense troops;
----- - cover rear service troops and targets against enemy air attacks;
----- - conduct air reconnaissance.



Army Air Defense Troops

Groupings of army air defense troops are established by employing air defense rocket units, air defense artillery troops, and radio-technical troops. This grouping is established with fighter aviation and air defense troops of the adjacents in order to accomplish the following:
----- - prevent or greatly weaken enemy air strikes against army main groupings and its rear service targets;
----- - destroy enemy airborne assault troops in the air;
----- - prevent flight of enemy aircraft against front rear services.



Army Reserves

Army reserves are employed in areas which may benefit from their ability to maneuver rapidly to threatened directions.



Nuclear Weapons

In a defensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons they are considered the decisive means of inflicting losses on the attacking enemy. It must be noted that the army will normally be allocated a limited number of nuclear rounds while conducting the defense. Therefore, the nuclear weapons must be used at the decisive phase of the operation and on the most threatened directions.

Nuclear weapons must be employed with much care and calculations. Nuclear weapons should inflict timely, effective losses on important targets of the attacking enemy. This must occur at the decisive phase of the operation in order to ensure favorable conditions for the initiative of the attack by the defending forces.

The main targets of nuclear weapons in defense are as follows:
----- - nuclear weapons;
----- - groupings of tank forces;
----- - aircraft on airfields;
----- - command posts;
----- - air defense means;
----- - vital rear service targets.

Nuclear strikes are supplemented by the use of chemical weapons in order to accomplish the following:
----- - inflict losses on enemy personnel;
----- - create large contaminated areas on enemy advance directions;
----- - employ air strikes using conventional weapons;
----- - fire of artillery and mortar, tanks, antitank and infantry weapons.

Contents and Methods of Preparation for the Defensive Operation

The preparation of the army's defensive operations include numerous measures conducted by the following:
----- - commanders;
----- - staffs;
----- - chiefs of arms and services;
----- - party and political organs of the troops;
----- - rear services.

These measures are taken in order to establish a firm (viable) and active defense.

The principle measures for preparation of the defensive operations are as follows:
----- - making decisions for the operation and establishing defensive groupings of forces;
----- - assigning (dovidenie) missions to the troops and organizing coordination (interaction) among them;
----- - planning the operation;
----- - preparing nuclear strikes and establishing fire systems of conventional means;
----- - organizing air defenses;
----- - establishing engineer work (installation) of the terrain;
----- - organizing and conducting political-morale work;
----- - organizing the support of combat actions of the troops and troop control during the operation;
----- - maintaining constant high combat-readiness of troops for the accomplishment of the assigned missions.



Method of Conduct

The method of conduct of these measures and the form of the actions of the commanders and staffs at all levels, depend on the following:
----- - assigned mission for the defense;
----- - condition of the situation under which the defensive operation is prepared;
----- - troops passing over to defense.

In this process the following factors become extremely significant:
----- - army's time period of assuming the defense (advance assumption of defense or passing over to defense during enemy initiated attacks);
----- - type of weapons used (with or without the use of nuclear weapons);
----- - characteristics of enemy actions and his likely intentions;
----- - status (sostayanie) and operational situation of the army's forces;
----- - availability of nuclear weapons, chemical weapons, and material reserves;
----- - terrain conditions and engineer installations (oborodavanie) of the TSMA and defensive belts (polasa).



Preparation for the Operation

In peacetime, preparation for the operation enables the following to occur:
----- - reconnaissance and evaluation of the terrain and army's defensive area;
----- - detailed operational planning;
----- - establishment of all measures on advance organization of the defensive operation.

In peacetime preparation of the operation is conducted in anticipation of the possibility and, or, likelihood of its initiation and conduct with or without the use of nuclear weapons. This principle also constitutes the basis for the preparation of the defense, which is assumed during the course of combat actions conducted with the use of conventional weapons. An important measure for preparing the operation under such conditions, is organizing the participation of army weapons and means in the initial nuclear strike of the front.

During the army's assumption of the defense, in the course of the attack, the army commanders and staffs are required to accomplish the following:
----- - resolve different tasks in accordance with their contents and characteristics;
----- - take measures on repulsing enemy strikes (blows);
----- - destroy enemy airborne assault troops;
----- - organize infliction of losses on enemy reserves;
----- - prepare defenses on the most favorable lines.

Simultaneously with the organization of defense, troop control is conducted during the ongoing attack. Under such conditions all measures on preparation of the defensive operation will be conducted in a short time.

In the case of enemy nuclear and chemical attacks at the beginning of the war, or during the course of combat actions, preparation of defenses will be conducted simultaneously with actions eliminating the consequences of the use of these weapons. This is done in order to revitalize troop combat capabilities.



Making the Decisions for the Operation

The decision of the army commander constitutes the basis for the conduct of all measures on preparation of the defensive operation and troop control during the operation. Making a logically measured decision for the defense is possible only through proper clarification of the assigned mission and all-around, detailed assessment of the situation.



Clarification of the Defensive Mission

During the clarification of the defensive mission, the army commander is obliged to understand thoroughly the following:
----- - concept of the operation of the front commander;
----- - aim of assuming the defense;
----- - role of the army in the front operation;
----- - specified missions of the army in the defense;
----- - interrelationships among the missions of the army's large units;
----- - impacts of the use of the nuclear weapons;
----- - means of the front and adjacent operational formations on the army's actions and the nature of interaction with them;
----- - forms and nature of maneuvers which may enable the army to accomplish its missions.


In the process of clarification of the missions, the army commander looks at and reaches decisions on the following questions:
----- - what actions are required to be conducted by the army currently or in the immediate future;
----- - what measures must be taken by the army staff and chiefs of arms and services on preparation of the operation;
----- - what instructions must be given to the troops.

In the process of assessing (estimating) the situation the army commander determines the following points:
----- - likely enemy concept of operation (intention);
------- enemy capability to use nuclear weapons, chemical weapons, and air strikes;
---- -- composition of the groupings of enemy main forces and their likely directions of attack;
---- -- enemy strong and weak points;
---- -- principle reconnaissance missions.
----- - army capability to foil enemy attacks;
---- -- destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means;
---- -- inflicting losses on enemy strong groupings of forces by nuclear and chemical weapons, air force, artillery fire, and other means;
---- -- army capability to repulse enemy attacks;
---- -- destruction of enemy groupings of forces which may have penetrated into the depth of the defense;
---- -- correlation of forces and means in terms of different directions;
----- - directions where the main effort of enemy troops must be concentrated;
---- -- terrain lines (areas), holding of which would insure firmness of defense;
---- -- required density of forces and means in important directions and areas;
----- - the best (optimum) structure of groupings of army forces and means for the defense and the method of its establishment;
---- - the forward line (FLOT), defensive belts (polasa) of first-echelon large units, defensive lines and lines of deployment of army second-echelon large units and reserves;
---- -- security zones (polasa) and troops to be allocated to those zones;
---- -- position areas for rocket and air defense troops;
---- -- directions of the maneuver of forces and means in the course of the operation, particularly in the direction of counterattacks and counterblows;
---- -- areas of deployment of command posts and army rear service elements.

When the army assumes the defense under any specific condition, the methods and sequences of making decisions may have a different character due to the conditions of the situation and availability of time. When the army assumes the defense during combat action, particularly under enemy blows and strikes, the army commander, depending on the situation, may visualize the most urgent issues on each individual direction and rapidly assign missions to the troops to resolve these tasks.

If there is rapid change in the situation, the army commander will have a very limited time to make his decision. Therefore, the decision must always be made with foresightness. It is based on the following:
----- - accurate calculations;
----- - correct information about enemy targets and groupings of forces;
----- - objective and realistic assessments of our forces along with the enemy's;
----- - terrain conditions;
----- - other factors.

On the basis of the clarification of the mission and assessment (estimate) of the situation, the army commander makes his decision on the map, which includes the following:
----- - concept of the defensive operation;
----- - missions of the troops;
----- - main questions of coordination (interaction), troop control, and supporting measures of combat actions.

The concept of the operation specifies the following points:
----- - what grouping of enemy forces, where, when, by what means, and in what form losses must be inflicted and its attack foiled;
----- - where the main effort of army forces must be concentrated;
----- - establishment (layout, postroenie) of the defense.

The main effort of the army may be concentrated on one or two directions depending on the following:
----- - condition under which the defense is assumed;
----- - high commander's concept of the operation and army's mission;
----- - likely enemy actions;
----- - terrain conditions;
----- - army's composition.

The main defensive belt, the first defensive belt, and sometimes the second defensive belt (polasa) may be selected.

On the basis of the concept of the operation, the army commander specifies the following points in his decision:
----- - missions,targets, and methods of use of nuclear and chemical weapons;
----- - the forward line (FLOT), army's defensive lines, and blocking (osechnie) defensive lines;
----- - mission of first and second-echelon large units ( combined arms reserve), rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, air force, engineer and chemical troops, antitank mobile reserves, mobile obstacle detachment (POZ), and special troop reserves;
----- - time of defensive occupation by the troops and the time of the readiness of fire systems;
----- - character, method, and time of preparation for engineer work (installation) on the terrain;
----- - main issues on troop control, coordination (interaction), and supporting measures of the combat actions of the troops.

V. ASSIGNMENT OF MISSIONS TO TROOPS AND ORGANIZATION OF COORDINATION (INTERACTION)

During assignment of missions to the first-echelon divisions, the following are usually specified:
----- - attached means;
----- - defensive areas (polasa), the forward lines (FLOT), and directions and areas of the main effort;
----- - missions of artillery during counterpreparatory fire;
----- - missions to destroy enemy airborne assault troops;
----- - directions of counterattacks;
----- - number of rockets with nuclear, chemical, and conventional warheads to be used;
----- - missions of adjacents and methods of coordination (interaction) with them and the air force;
----- - responsibility of covering the flanks and boundary lines;
----- - method of conducting terrain engineer work;
----- - deploying command posts;
----- - time of preparation of the defense.

If a security zone (polasa) is being established in front of the forward line of the defense, the army commander also specifies the divisions, sizes of troops and means operating in that area, character of their action, and method of their support.

The following points are specified with second-echelon large units (combined arms reserve):
----- - lines, belts (areas) of defense;
----- - missions and directions of counterblows (counterattacks), deployment lines, and the directions of advance;
----- - missions for destruction of enemy airborne assault troops;
----- - method of support action of second-echelon forces (combined arms reserves);
----- - method of coordination (interaction) with first-echelon large units and reserves;
----- - number of allocated nuclear and chemical rounds;
----- - method of initiation of the attack in the wake of the nuclear strike (if nuclear strike is launched);
----- - character (nature) and time of preparation of engineer work (installation) of the terrain;
----- - deployment of command posts.

Rocket and artillery troops are assigned the following points:
----- - position areas of rocket brigades;
----- - fire position areas of army artillery groups;
----- - method and time of the occupation of positions;
----- - number of nuclear and chemical rounds to be used;
----- - targets of nuclear weapons;
----- - areas of artillery counterpreparatory fire and the troops and means employed in this fire;
----- - missions inflicting losses on the enemy in front of the forward line (FLOT);
----- - destruction of enemy groupings which penetrate into the depth of the defense.
----- - method of conduct of maneuvers;
----- - measures on maintaining combat-readiness of rocket troops;
----- - providing security for friendly forces during the launching of nuclear strikes;
----- - time of preparation for the artillery.

To the air defense troops, the following are specified:
----- - groupings of forces and rear service targets for covering the main effort of air defense troops;
----- - method of repulsion of enemy air strikes;
----- - composition of on-duty (dezhournie) troops and means;
----- - method of maneuvers;
----- - method of coordination (interaction) with fighter aviation.

The air force is assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - missions to destroy enemy nuclear delivery means;
----- - launch strikes on groupings of enemy main forces during their advance (approach), their deployment for the attack, during the conduct of counterpreparatory fire, during the repulse of enemy tank and infantry attack, and missions supporting counterblows;
----- - targets and methods of nuclear weapons use. ----- Mobile antitank reserves and mobile obstacle detachments are assigned the following:
----- - composition;
----- - missions;
----- - areas of deployment;
----- - lines of deployment (lines of mining for the mobile obstacle detachment);
----- - methods of maneuver and coordination (interaction) with the first and second-echelon large units.

Special troops (engineer, chemical) reserves are assigned the following:
----- - composition;
----- - areas of deployment;
----- - missions that they must be ready to accomplish.

In instructions given to the chief of staff and the chief of arms and services, the army commander specifies the following:
----- - method of planning the operation;
----- - conveying missions to the troops;
----- - organizing coordination (interaction);
----- - method of conduct of measures on all-around support of combat actions;
----- - troops control.

Coordination (interaction) among troops is usually organized during the assignment of missions to the troops. When time is available, the coordination (interaction) may be confirmed on the terrain. The issues related to coordination (interaction) are reflected in the following:
----- - plans of the operation;
----- - planning documents of the combat employment of combat arms and different types of combat support measures.

Organization of coordination (interaction) in defense is the coordinated (concerted) action of the following:
----- - large units;
----- - units of combat and combat support arms;
----- - air force.

Destruction of the enemy and foiling his attacks will be conducted in terms of the following:
----- - objectives;
----- - times;
----- - places;
----- - forms of accomplishing the assigned mission;
----- - directing efforts toward establishing a firm, viable defense.

Coordination (interaction) in army defensive operations is organized in terms of the missions of the troops and likely directions of enemy attacks. Particular attention is paid to the coordination of the following:
- rocket troops strikes;
----- - air forces strikes;
----- - artillery strikes;
----- - first- and second-echelon large units and reserves strikes;
----- - coordination (interaction) of groupings of forces operating on the likely directions of enemy attacks;
----- - coordination on the directions of army counterblows;
----- - coordination (interaction) with the front's large units and means.


Planning the operation

Planning for the defensive operation is conducted on the basis of the army commander's decisions and instructions. The operation is planned in terms of the missions of troops and likely directions of enemy attacks. The planning of the operation, which is conducted on the basis of the principle missions, may be the following:
----- - inflicting losses on enemy groupings of forces on the approaches to the defense, including the infliction of losses on enemy groupings which make preparations for the attack;
----- - repulsing enemy attacks and holding the defensive belt (polasa) of the first-echelon large units while simultaneously destroying enemy airborne assault troops;
----- - destroying enemy groupings which are breaking through the defense or has penetrated into the depth of the defense.

While planning the operation decisions are made on the following:
----- - thoroughly and elaborately organizing all elements of the commander's decisions;
----- - method and form of conduct of each mission;
----- - effort of the troops;
----- - expenditures (raskhod) of material supplies to be distributed among missions;
----- - directions of actions;
----- - methods of coordination (interaction) of the troops during the conduct of the assigned mission are specified;
----- - issues related to all types of supporting measures of combat actions and troop control.

Participation would be conducted under the following conditions:
----- - while preparing for the defensive operation in peacetime;
----- - preparing in the course of the conduct of combat actions;
----- - without the use of nuclear weapons;
----- - with elaborate planning of the use of conventional means.

Special attention is concentrated on planning measures directed toward maintaining high combat-readiness of rocket troops. These troops are to participate in the initial nuclear strike of the front and the initiation of defense by the army troops.

The sequence and method of action of the army's field troop control elements while planning the operation and the volume (details) of the issues reflected in the plan, depend on the situation and primarily on the availability of time.

The plan of the army's defensive operation is usually prepared in the following manner:
----- - graphically on a map (often with a scale of 1/200,000);
----- - with annexes of written instructions;
----- - with descriptive documents.

Sometimes the plan of the operation may be prepared in a written form with a map annex. The graphic plan, prepared on the map usually reflects the following:
----- - groupings of enemy forces on likely directions of his attack, likely areas of landing airborne and seaborne (when the defense is conducted on seacoast directions) assault forces;
----- - groupings of army forces and means and their maneuvers in accordance with likely enemy actions;
----- - missions and targets to be destroyed by nuclear and chemical weapons, air forces, and artillery;
----- - missions of army first and second-echelon (combined arms reserve) large units, lines of deployment of second-echelon troops (reserves), and the direction of movement to the deployment lines;
----- - missions of air defense troops and the air force;
----- - missions of antitank reserves and special troops reserves;
----- - engineer installations (oborodovanie) of defensive belts (polasa), and the establishment of the system of obstacles and demolitions;
----- - command posts;
----- - deployment of rear service units, installations, and other information.

In the descriptive documents, the following points are included:
----- - deductions from the assessment (estimate) of the situation;
----- - aim and concept of the operation;
----- - combat composition of the army;
----- - distribution of support means;
----- - time of delivery and distribution of nuclear and chemical rounds;
----- - correlation and density of forces and means in the entire defensive area of the army and on each direction;
----- - calculation of the time needed for movement of troops and occupation of the defense by them;
----- - availability, supply, and distribution of material supplies;
----- - time of readiness for the fire system, engineer installations, and other issues which can not be shown graphically.

The chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services and the chiefs of rear services prepare their related plans of the combat employment for their respective troops and special troops and their related plans of support for combat actions which are part of the operational planning.


Organization of the Fire System

The fire system is the preparation of fire strikes on approaches to the defense and establishment of dense (sploshnaya) and multi-level areas of all types of fire in front of the forward line (FLOT), on the flanks, and in the depth of the defense. It is also the quick concentration of fire on each direction or threatening areas. The fire system is established with consideration of the following: ----- - nuclear and chemical strikes;
----- - close fire coordination of all types of weapons;
----- - air strikes in combination with the system of obstacles and natural barriers.

The principle organizers of the fire system are the commanders of large units and units. Nevertheless, the major role in this process is played by the army commander, who is responsible for the following:
----- - issuing necessary instructions on the methods of coordination (interaction) with the employment of conventional weapons;
----- - conducting the fire maneuvers on threatening directions to cover the boundaries and flanks;
----- - organizing the counterpreparatory fire (based on instructions of the front commander);
----- - preparatory and supporting fire for the counterblow;
----- - issues of calling in fire means from the army's second-echelon troops, army reserves, and adjacent areas.

The fire system is organized across the entire front and depth of the defense, including in front of and through each defensive belt and defensive line. The fire system is organized particularly closely and carefully on tank threatening directions and in front of the forward line of the main defensive belt (polasa).

The artillery is designed to accomplish the following:
----- - long-range fire;
----- - massive fire;
----- - concentrated fire;
----- - barrage fire on likely directions of enemy attacks.

The areas designated to artillery are the following:
----- - approaches to the defense (within its range);
----- - in likely areas of enemy deployment for the attack;
----- - in front of the forward line (FLOT);
----- - in the depth of the defense.

In order to inflict losses on the enemy on approaches to the defense, the long-range fire strikes are prepared. The areas of such fire are usually selected at the following:
----- - passages;
----- - crossings;
----- - defiles;
----- - gorges;
----- - road junctions;
----- - likely routes of enemy movements.

The long-range (remote) fire strikes on each area are conducted by short, powerful fire strikes of one or several artillery battalions.

In front of the forward line (FLOT) the following are prepared on one or several lines located on the advance route of enemy tanks and infantry:
----- - massive fire;
----- - concentrated fire;
----- - barrage fire.

The distance of barrage fire may be 400-600 m. The closest line of barrage fire to the forward line (FLOT) must provide for the conduct of the fire of antitank weapons on enemy attacking tanks and APCs. The closest line should not be less than 400 m from the forward line (FLOT).

In the depth of the defense the concentration fire and barrage fire of artillery are planned in likely areas of enemy penetration and on the directions of counterblows and counterattacks. For antitank reserves the fire lines are designated.

Particular attention is required in organizing the antitank defense. Antitank defense constitutes the basis of the defense of large units and units. Its organization is one of the major responsibilities of all commanders. Antitank defense is organized throughout the entire depth of the defense, but primarily on tank threatened areas.

Contemporary large units are capable of establishing a high density of antitank weapons in defense. They repel the attacks of enemy tanks by their organic antitank weapons. The total antitank capability of the division (motorized rifle or tank) facilitates successful repulsion of tank attacks of two enemy divisions. In this context on important directions the antitank defense may be further reinforced by the following:
----- - army antitank reserves;
----- - mobile obstacle detachments (POZ);
----- - troops and means from less threatening directions.

The destruction of enemy tanks in assembly areas, during their movement, and deployment is achieved by the following:
----- - nuclear and air strikes;
----- - artillery concentration fire;
----- - barrage fire from covered positions.

In front of the forward line (FLOT) and in the depth of the defense this is achieved by the following:
----- - antitank guided missiles;
----- - artillery and tanks using direct fire;
----- - fire of antitank grenade launchers;
----- - other antitank weapons combined with antitank obstacles.

Antitank weapons deployed in defensive positions of battalions (companies strongpoints) on tank threatened directions, may establish a zone of dense (sploshnaya) antitank fire in a depth of 2-2.5 km in front of the forward line (FLOT).

VI. CONDUCT OF ARMY DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS WITH CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS

Forms of Inflicting Losses on the Attacking Enemy

Conducting the defense without the use of nuclear weapons, the principle means of enemy destruction are the following:
----- - massive fire of all types of weapons on the main directions of enemy attack;
----- - massive fire on vital areas;
----- - firm holding of positions and lines occupied by the troops;
----- - repulsion of enemy air attacks;
----- - wide maneuver of forces and means to prevent enemy breakthrough s to the depth of the defense;
----- - destruction of enemy groupings which have penetrated into the defense;
----- - counterattacks and counterblows.

In this context the defending forces, as a rule, inflict successive losses by fire on groupings of superior enemy forces on the following:
----- - approaches to the defense
----- - during the deployment of enemy troops for the attack;
----- - while repelling enemy attacks;
----- - during battles conducted within the positions, defensive belts, and defensive lines.

In terms of the conditions under which the defense is assumed the defensive operation may begin and be conducted in different forms.

At the beginning of the war the defensive operation may begin with the following:
----- - repulsion of enemy air attacks;
----- - conducting massive air strikes;
----- - actions of covering troops to repel the attacks of groupings of enemy ground forces.

When the defense is assumed in the absence of contact with the main groupings of enemy forces, i.e., during advance preparations of the defense (in conditions when initiation of the attack by the enemy is likely) the defensive operation may begin with the following:
----- - launching of strike by air forces;
----- - long-range artillery strikes on enemy groupings along the approaches to the defense, i.e., in assembly areas, and during enemy advances.

Under favorable conditions counterpreparatory fires on enemy groupings of forces are deploying or making preparations for the attack. For this purpose the rocket and artillery troops, air forces, and other means of fire are employed. Following counterpreparatory fire, strikes (attacks) of infantry and tank troops in front of the forward line (FLOT) may be conducted.

When assuming the defense while in direct contact with the main striking groupings of the enemy, particularly during the conduct of the attack (counterblow) initiated by the enemy, the combat actions of army troops in defensive operations may begin directly with repelling the enemy's attack and air strikes. In such conditions during the action to repulse the attack initiated by the enemy, other activities may be simultaneously conducted. These activities could be the following:
----- - consolidation of seized lines or the most favorable lines in the depth;
----- - movement and deployment of forces and means;
----- - regroupment to establish the appropriate defensive groupings of forces.

This is accomplished in accordance with the decisions made for the following:
----- - defense;
----- - organization of fire systems;
----- - engineer preparations of positions, defensive belts, and lines.

When actions to foil enemy preparations for the attack (on approaches to the defense) or to repulse enemy initiated attacks in front of the forward line (FLOT) do not succeed, the defenders continue to inflict losses on the enemy during battles conducted to hold positions in the defensive belts of the first-echelon units. This may be achieved through the following:
----- - firm holding-out of occupied lines;
----- - destruction of the attacking enemy by all types of fire and air strikes;
----- - conduct of wide maneuvers by forces and means on vital directions and areas.

In order to destroy enemy forces which are breaking through or have penetrated into the depth of the defense the following may be conducted:
----- - counterattacks at the regiment and division levels;
/----- - counterblows at army levels.

In contemporary times the attack of enemy ground force groupings is combined with actions of the airborne assault troops. These troops may conduct various missions, however, their prime task is to support the attack on the main direction. Therefore, in the course of the conduct of the defensive operation, the army troops will have to fight enemy airborne assaults and airmobile forces. On naval directions it becomes necessary to conduct combat actions to repel enemy seaborne assault forces.

Thus, inflicting losses on the enemy and destroying his groupings of forces in the defensive operation without the use of nuclear weapons may be conducted by the following means:
----- - launching air force and artillery strikes on enemy groupings on the approaches to defense (assembly areas and during enemy advances);
----- - conducting counterpreparatory fire on enemy forces which are deploying for the attack, making preparations for the attack, and sometimes launching strikes (attacks) by infantry and tank troops in front of forward lines (FLOT);
----- - inflicting losses on the enemy by artillery fire while repelling his attacks and by air strikes combined with holding of occupied defensive lines, and simultaneously destroying enemy airborne, seaborne, and air mobile troops;
----- - conducting counterattacks and army counterblows on enemy groupings of forces which are breaking through or which have penetrated into the depth of the defense.


Inflicting Losses on the Enemy on Approaches to the Defense

When, prior to the attack, the enemy conducts advance movements and then deploys and attacks, the actions of the army troops are primarily directed toward weakening the enemy's approaching groupings and delaying the initiation of its attack. For this purpose, successive strikes on enemy forces are launched as they move from far approaches to the vicinity of the defensive lines.

The front commander makes the decision on delivering strikes on groupings of enemy forces at a distance of 200-300 km and farther from the forward line of the defending forces (FLOT). For this purpose, the bomber aviation is employed. As the enemy forces move to a distance of 100-150 km from the forward line (FLOT), strikes on his forces may be delivered by fighter-bomber aviation.

It is recommended that strikes on the approaching enemy groupings be delivered in areas which will facilitate the maximum losses on the enemy and delay his advance for a considerable amount of time. Such times would be while enemy forces are passing through the following:
----- - road junctions;
----- - bridges;
----- - crossings;
----- - passes;
----- - mountain passages (gorges);
----- - other bottlenecks.

The air force accomplishes the following:
----- - launches strikes on the march columns of enemy forces;
----- - destroys bridges and crossings on water obstacles;
----- - creates barriers on mountain roads;
----- - inflicts losses on nuclear delivery means during their movement and arrival to assembly areas;
----- - inflicts losses on important command posts and enemy air defense means.

The artillery inflicts losses on the enemy during his advance toward the immediate approaches of the defense. Artillery initially delivers long-range fire strikes then, as the enemy approaches, launches concentrated fires and barrage fires in front of the forward line (FLOT). In their context it must be noted that the gun and multiple rocket artillery launch their fire strikes at a distance of 15-25 km and the howitzer artillery at a distance of 10-15 km from the forward line (FLOT). The closer the enemy troops approach to the defense, the more the capability of defense increases in inflicting losses on the enemy by fire. To conduct fire against enemy forces which move to deploy for the attack the following are employed:
----- - the bulk of army artillery;
----- - reinforcing artillery
----- - mortar;
----- - flamethrowers;
----- - tanks;
----- - antitank guided missiles;
----- - antitank guns;
----- - grenade launchers.

When in front of the main defensive belt, a security zone (polasa) is established. Troops assigned to this zone, as well as the artillery of the main defense area, from their temporary positions, fight the enemy as he passes through the security zone (belt). The principle forms of action of the covering troops are surprise delivery and successive fire strikes. This will be combined with holding critical positions and areas which cover likely main directions of enemy advances toward the main defensive belt (polasa).

During combat in the security zone (belt), the direction of the main enemy attack is determined by friendly forces. First-echelon large units improve their defenses and conduct active reconnaissance. Commanders and staff reconfirm the plans of the conduct of the defense, and when required, conduct regroupment of their forces and means to reinforce critical directions.

In cases when groupings of enemy main forces deploy in the security zone (polasa), and he comes within range of the bulk of artillery units of the army, the condition and possibility of conducting counterpreparatory fire on this enemy grouping is created.


Inflicting Losses on Enemy Forces Which Make Preparations for the Attack and Conduct Counterpreparatory Fire

An important form of inflicting losses on an enemy which conducts deployment or makes preparations for the attack is counterpreparatory fire. In the Great Patriotic War there were many instances of the organization and conduct of counterpreparation. Even in the initial phase of war, cases of the counterpreparatory fire in the defense against those enemy forces which were making preparations for the attack have been seen. As a result, the enemy suffered heavy losses and was forced to delay his attack for some time. During the second and third phase of the war the importance of counterpreparatory fire increased.

When time and means are available to prepare massive artillery fire and air strikes on enemy groupings of forces in front of the forward line of defense, counterpreparatory fire may be conducted. Generally speaking, counterpreparatory fire is possible when the defense is prepared in advance or when a security zone (polasa) is established in front of the defense. According to the experiences of field exercises, in order to plan artillery fire and its combat actions during counterpreparatory fire, the division needs 3-5 hours and the army 6-8 hours.

Counterpreparatory fire consists of the surprising and powerful strikes of the following:
----- - air forces;
----- - artillery fire strikes;
----- - simultaneous tank fire;
----- - simultaneous antitank fire;
----- - other weapons.

These strikes are conducted on the main groupings of enemy forces in front of the forward line of defense (FLOT). When counterpreparatory fire is conducted only by the army artillery and part of the front aviation, which is assigned to support the army forces, counterpreparatory fire may be organized by the army commander in accordance with the instructions of the front commander. When such fire is conducted by the main forces of front aviation and the bulk of front artillery, the front commander will be the organizer.

Conduct of counterpreparatory fire requires the concentration of a large number of artillery in a small area so that an average density of 30-40 guns and mortars per kilometer of front can be achieved. When in the army's sector, the counterpreparatory fire is conducted in front of the forward line (FLOT) of one of the divisions defending the main direction. The following forces may be assigned to participate in the conduct of counterpreparatory fire:
----- - artillery of that division;
----- - army artillery groups;
----- - artillery regiments;
----- - multiple rocket launcher battalions of two adjacent divisions;
----- - second-echelon artillery (sometimes).

This amounts to 400-500 guns and mortars taking part in the fire. Thus, the dimension of the fire area can reach 10-15 km across the front and in depth. This means that losses may be inflicted by artillery fire strikes on the first-echelon forces of one or two enemy divisions.

The air force assigned to participate in the counterpreparatory fire usually launches its strikes on targets which are out of artillery range. The depth of the area of conduct of the counterpreparatory fire may increase to 20-30 km or more when in addition to the artillery, the air force takes part in its conduct. Fire power of the artillery and air strikes generally can inflict losses on the main units of 1-2 enemy divisions.

These calculations confirm that it is difficult to achieve a decisive aim by the conduct of the counterpreparatory fire, i.e. to foil enemy prepared (planned) attacks. However, counterpreparatory fire may be realistically aimed at weakening enemy striking groups and gaining time to make preparations for repulsing enemy attacks. Moreover, when successfully conducted, counterpreparatory fire greatly helps the defending forces seize the initiative.
Success in counterpreparatory fire is achieved through the following:
----- - proper selection of the time of its conduct;
----- - effective distribution of targets to be hit, between artillery, air forces, and other weapons.

The main effort of forces participating in the counterpreparatory fire are concentrated on the most important targets which have been accurately detected (known) and particularly the nuclear delivery means, artillery, tank units, and the command posts. The counterpreparatory fire must begin in surprise and conducted prior to the prepared and planned artillery fire and air force strikes of the enemy. However, the counterpreparatory fire may begin before the arrival of the main forces of the enemy in the departure (FUP) area or the line of deployment for the attack. The best time for the conduct of the counterpreparatory fire is the time when the enemy completes the preparation to initiate the attack.

The method (structure) of the counterpreparatory fire is specified by the front or army commanders. The duration of the fire is determined on the basis of the time required for the accomplishment of the assigned missions of all participating forces and means. According to the experiences of the field exercises it may last about 25-40 minutes. To insure the high effectiveness of the counterpreparatory fire it is recommended that the fire begin with simultaneous strikes of all weapons and aircraft assigned to participate in the conduct of the counterpreparatory fire. Moreover, it is required that radio-electronic jamming be widely used to disrupt the troop control of the enemy forces and particularly the control of enemy's artillery and his air force.

Under favorable conditions the results of the counterpreparatory fire are exploited for launching tank and infantry strikes (attacks) in front of the forward line (FLOT) to disrupt enemy's attack, to destroy certain units in his groupings, to seize favorable terrain areas and to delay enemy's attack on the actual direction.

When a strike (attack) is intended in front of the forward line (FLOT), the composition of forces and means assigned for the strike, the directions of their action, areas (lines) to be seized by them, the method of consolidation of such areas and lines and supporting measures to insure the combat action of the assigned forces and means must be determined. The troops assigned to conduct strike in front of the forward line (FLOT) are better assigned from the second-echelon forces and reserves. The first-echelon forces must be left in their prepared defensive areas in a state ready to repel the enemy attack.

Along with the organization of the counterpreparatory fire and strikes of troops in front of the forward line of defense, the army commander takes measures to reinforce the defense on important directions and to maintain high readiness of the troops to repel possible enemy attack. For this purpose the mission of the troops and the method of the conduct of the maneuver of troops and means are reconfirmed, the preparation of the air defense means for the repulsion of the massive strikes of the enemy's aircraft is intensified, the density of the antitank works are improved, additional obstacles and demolitions are created, and directions (axes) of movements are prepared for the maneuver of the troops. When required, relocation of the second-echelon forces and reserves and relocation of fire positions and command posts may be effected. All measures regarding the reinforcement of the defense must be conducted rapidly and secretly.


Repulse of the Enemy's Attack and Maintaining the Main Defensive Belt Polasa)

Since it is not possible to inflict decisive losses on the enemy's grouping by conventional weapons during its advance and development for the attack, inflict losses on the enemy by conventional weapons generally continues during the entire course of defensive combat. To accomplish the mission of maintaining (holding) the occupied defensive positions and lines in combination with the action of infantry and tank troops, rocket and artillery troops, air force, air defense troops, and other combat and combat support arms use their specific weapons and combat equipment, in combination with the action of infantry and tank troops.

Repulsing the enemy's attack on the main defensive belt is the critical and complicated phase of defensive combat, because at this stage the main forces and means of the attacking enemy and the defending forces initiate combat action. Repulsing the enemy's attack is achieved by the participation of all fire means of the defending forces and front aviation. During combat for the main defensive belt (polasa), normally the army's second-echelon forces and reserves, as well as the bulk of the air defense forces and means, take part.

In modern conditions the success of the defensive operation depends mainly on the organization of a reliable air defense. The experiences of the Great Patriotic War and combat actions in Vietnam and the Near East confirm that the enemy will still try to launch powerful air strikes prior to the initiation of the attack or he will concentrate his air strike at the beginning of the attack. Therefore, the army commander and the division commanders must prepare the air defense means in a timely manner for a reliable covering of the main defending forces.


Destruction of the Enemy that has Penetrated into the Depth of the Defense - Conduct of Army Counterblows

Enemy groupings that have penetrated into the depth of the defense or have broken through the defense are destroyed by the following means:
----- - air strikes;
----- - massive artillery fires;
----- - tank fire;
----- - other weapons;
----- - conduct of decisive counterblows.

In operations during the Great Patriotic War counterblows proved to be of significant importance in achieving activeness and great firmness of the defense. At the initial phase of the war several counterblows were conducted to accomplish the following:
----- - divert enemy forces from the main direction;
----- - force the enemy to regroup his forces;
----- - delay enemy attack for a while;
----- - stop the enemy attack.

Several counterblows successfully led to the destruction of the groupings of enemy forces, which had penetrated into the depth of the defense and to the restoration of the initial defensive line.

Under favorable conditions the counterblows launched during the second half of the war lead to drastic changes in the situation with the enemy calling-off his attack.

In contemporary times the capability of the defense to destroy the attacking enemy is increased by the following:
----- - launching counterblows;
----- - subsequent reinforcement and development of striking power;
----- - manuever of the troops.

Therefore, in contemporary defense counterblows are the principle form of troop action for achieving the aim of the operation. By launching counterblows the following can be accomplished:
----- - maximum losses can be inflicted on the enemy;
----- - initiative in the combat action can be seized;
----- - favorable conditions for the initiation of the offensive.

According to the experiences of war and the fundamentals of operational art, the counterblow is basically the active and decisive form of destruction of the enemy forces which have penetrated into the defense. It usually ends the defensive operation and determines its outcome. Counterblows can be the final phase of the defensive operation. The more the defending forces conduct decisive actions to rapidly change the situation to their favor and seize the initiative on the actual directions, the more they effectively achieve the operational aim.

By conducting the counterblow the army can achieve its decisive aim, which is the destruction of the enemy attempting to penetrate or breakthrough the army's defense area and the creation of favorable conditions for the initiation of the enemy's attack. When conditions are less favorable, the army's counterblow may be launched in order to accomplish limited missions in scope such as:
----- - destruction of the most threatening groupings of the enemy or enemy forces which have penetrated into the depth of the defense;
----- - restoration of the defense on one of the favorable lines.

In conditions when the enemy penetrates the army's defensive area on several directions and a large number of the army's second-echelon forces and reserves are engaged in combat action with the penetrating enemy forces and his airborne assault troops, the counterblow can be launched sometimes to stop the attack of the enemy's main groupings of forces, to stabilize the front, and to provide favorable conditions for the counterblow to be conducted by the front forces. Counterblows can also be launched to help part of the army's forces being encircled by the enemy or to eliminate the encirclement threats facing the army's main forces.

To conduct the counterblow it is required that forces and means on the direction of the counterblow be allocated in such a way that they can provide for the establishment of the necessary superiority over the enemy. It is required that simultaneous measures be taken to foil the maneuver of enemy reserves in the counterblow area.

The composition of the forces conducting the counterblow will include the following:
----- - army second-echelon forces and reserves;
----- - first-echelon forces operating on the direction of the counterblow;
----- - first-echelon troops from the areas which are not attacked by the enemy.

The later will join the army's counterblow after regroupment. The forces conducting the counterblow are supported by artillery, engineer troops, and air forces.

While making the decisions for the counterblows the army commanders assess the following:
----- - composition of participating forces;
----- - their missions;
------ method of their movement and deployment;
----- - missions of the artillery and the air force;
----- - organizing all-around combat support measures for the conduct of the counterblow.

The initiation of the counterblow by powerful fire strikes from the artillery and air force is very crucial. For this purpose the bulk of army artillery must be concentrated on the direction of the counterblow. The following are deployed on the direction of the counterblow:
----- - army artillery;
----- - attached artillery;
----- - artillery of the division which participates in the counterblow;
----- - artillery of the first-echelon division in the areas where the counterblow is launched.

It is better to assign a large number of tank units in the first-echelon of the counterblow and direct their surprise strikes against threatening areas, generally on open flanks of enemy groupings.

The direction of the counterblow is determined in accordance with its aim and the situation which has developed during the defensive combat in due consideration of the following:
----- - terrain;
----- - capabilities of rapid movement;
----- - deployment of the troops for launching the counterblow and its quick development.

In this context the following are taken into consideration:
----- - deployment lines prepared in advance;
----- - lines firmly held by the defending troops;
----- - the situation of the troops which continue in the enemy rear.

The selection for the time of launching the counterblow is very important. It is better to launch the counterblow at a time when the firmness and sustainability of the army's defense is not disrupted. Such times would be the following:
----- - when the enemy has suffered maximum losses;
----- - his attack is stopped or slowed down;
----- - the enemy has not yet consolidated the lines he has seized;
----- - when, by commitment of army second-echelon troops and reserves the superiority of forces and means over the enemy in the counterblow area can be achieved.

Therefore, the enemy can be destroyed by the counterblow.

It is recommended that the counterblow be launched at the following times:
----- - when the enemy begins relocating his artillery and tactical delivery means;
----- - when the enemy has exhausted his immediate reserves;
----- - while his deeper reserves are delayed by air force strikes.

Depending on the situation, the counterblow can be launched against one or both flanks of the main enemy groupings. This form of destruction of enemy groupings which have penetrated into the depth of the defense or the enemy breaking through the defense constitutes the best form of action under the circumstances. This is because during the conduct of such forms of actions the threatening areas in the enemy's operational formations are better exploited. Army troops can rapidly reach the rear of the enemy's main attacking groupings and isolate it from its reserves. They can also capture or destroy enemy nuclear delivery means and destroy enemy forces in isolated pieces.

Launching the counterblow from the front (head on) to divide then enemy into pieces and destroy his penetrating groupings in isolated units can not be excluded. Apparently such forms for the conduct of counterblows are adopted under conditions when, because of the terrain, nature, or time required for the movement of the forces participating in the counterblow and concentration of the artillery, the conduct of the counterblow to the flanks of the enemy is not possible; or when the counterblow is conducted to destroy units of the penetrating groupings of the enemy and to establish the defense on a specific favorable line. A front counterblow may be appropriate when it provides for surprise action and ensures the rapid destruction of enemy forces which have penetrated into the depth of the defense.

In situations when the enemy enjoys greater superiority in forces in the army's area conduct of a counterblow will not be appropriate. In such cases the army's second-echelon forces (reserves) will operate to repel enemy advances on the directions of his main attacks by occupying and firmly holding the army's defensive line on that direction. In order to reinforce the defense on such directions, part of the front reserves can also be employed. Army counterblows may be launched later when it is reinforced by divisions from the front's reserves or they can be launched along with the front counterblow.

When the enemy manages to break through to the operational depth of the defense with large forces and also reserves available, the most crucial tasks would be the following:
----- - to stop the advance of the enemy forces;
----- - to inflict maximum losses on him;
----- - to isolate penetrating enemy groupings from other elements of enemy forces;
----- - to prevent the movement and advance of enemy reserves;
----- - to provide favorable conditions for the front's counterblows.


Insuring Preparations for the Initiation of Action with the Use of Nuclear Weapons

During the conduct of defensive actions with the use of conventional weapons, the important and constant mission of the army troops is to destroy enemy nuclear weapons. This means that at the phase of the initiation of combat action with the use of nuclear weapons, the enemy's superiority in nuclear weapons is eliminated. This will help in weakening the enemy's initial nuclear strike. On the other hand, special attention must be paid to maintaining constant combat-readiness of rocket troops to deliver nuclear strikes on enemy attacking groupings of forces. This can be achieved by constant reconfirmation and adjustment of missions for delivering nuclear strikes and by keeping the rocket troops in a state of combat-readiness that will provide for their capability to overtake the enemy in launching the initial nuclear strike.

An important condition of insuring timely delivery of nuclear strikes on the enemy is the conduct of continuous reconnaissance and surveillance of enemy actions. Reconnaissance is assigned to detect enemy preparations for the use of nuclear weapons and detection and disclosure of targets to be destroyed by nuclear weapons.

At the same time, it is required that measures be taken to keep the groupings of our own nuclear delivery means concealed from the enemy. Therefore, position areas of rocket troops and technical bases of rockets must be carefully and thoroughly concealed and camouflaged. The engineer work on the terrain must continuously develop and improve with observation of Maskirovka requirements. Army commanders must continuously pay special attention to the rocket troops from subversive and sabotage actions of the enemy.

During the course of the conduct of the defensive operation, the army forces must continuously meet requirements on measures of full protection against the impacts of mass-destruction weapons. Depending on the degree of likelihood of the use of nuclear weapons by the enemy, the engineer support of occupied defensive positions, particularly in the depth of the defense, are improved in the following ways:
----- - shelters for personnel;
----- - covers for combat equipment are reinforced;
----- - measures are taken to disperse units and subunits of second-echelon forces and reserves;
----- - radiation reconnaissance troops and means and special detachment for eliminating the consequences of enemy nuclear and chemical attacks are readied to conduct assigned missions.

Combat actions using nuclear weapons begins with the delivery of the initial nuclear strike by rocket troops and the air forces. These forces are in constant readiness to deliver nuclear strikes. Nuclear strikes must be directed toward the following:
----- - destruction of enemy nuclear delivery means;
----- - inflicting losses on the enemy's main groupings of attacking forces;
----- - creation of conditions for the initiation of the attack by the defending forces.

VII. CONDUCT OF ARMY DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS WITH THE USE OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Forms of Destroying the Attacking Enemy

In defensive operations using nuclear weapons, combat actions of defending forces are directed toward the following:
----- - inflicting decisive losses on the enemy;
----- - weakening enemy groupings of forces to the maximum;
----- - foiling enemy attacks;
----- - creating conditions for the initiation of the offensive by friendly forces.

Such characteristics of the action of the defending forces emerges from capabilities (power) of nuclear weapons. The use of nuclear and chemical weapons by the defending forces accomplishes the following:
----- - disrupts attacks of superior enemy forces;
----- - foils enemy prepared (planned) offensives;
----- - enables friendly forces to quickly pass from defensive actions to active offensive actions.

While actual capabilities of nuclear weapons for the decisive destruction of the enemy and foiling of his offensive is given due consideration, it must be noted that army forces in the defense must repel enemy attacks with a limited number of available nuclear rounds. Therefore, it is often required to inflict losses on the enemy by all available forces and means in a successive manner (the same way as in the defensive operation with the use of conventional weapons) until conditions are provided for the infliction of decisive losses on the enemy by the nuclear strike. Along with employment of nuclear and chemical weapons the following must be exploited to complete the destruction of the enemy:
----- - launching active offensive actions by the troops;
----- - making maximum use of the fire of conventional weapons in an effective manner;
----- - troops firmly holding vital terrain areas in the army's defensive sector;
----- - massive use of nuclear weapons.


Methods of Enemy Destruction

Methods of the destruction of enemy groupings can be in various forms. One form requires destroying the enemy by rocket troop strikes and by nuclear weapon use by the air force. The other form entails the use of chemical and conventional weapons in combination with actions to firmly hold and maintain defensive lines and areas while the destruction of the enemy's main groupings is sought through launching counterblows (udar) with massive use of nuclear weapons.


Forms of Conduct in Army Defensive Operations

The principle forms of conduct of army defensive operations with the use of nuclear weapons is to inflict losses on the enemy in the following ways:
----- - using of nuclear and chemical weapons;
----- - fire of conventional means;
----- - holding vital (critical) lines and areas;
----- - repelling strikes of the aerial enemy;
----- - launching counterblows in the wake of massive nuclear strikes.

Foiling the enemy's offensive may be achieved by inflicting successive losses on the enemy during all phases of his offensive, as well as by the massive use of nuclear weapons at the moment (phase) when actual conditions for the action are provided.

When defense is assumed under conditions of no direct contact with enemy main forces (when the enemy's attack or his counterblow is likely) nuclear and chemical strikes on the enemy moving on the approaches to the defense may be delivered. The following forces may conducted counterpreparatory fires (udar) under favorable conditions against the groupings of enemy forces which deploy for the attack:
----- - rocket troops;
----- - air forces;
----- - artillery;
----- - tanks.

Following counterpreparatory fire a thrust (udar) of tank and motorized forces in front of the forward line (FLOT) may be launched.


Assuming the Defense

When assuming the defense in direct contact with the enemy's main striking groupings of forces the defensive actions of the army can begin immediately after repelling the enemy's attack. This is accomplished by using conventional weapons combined with delivery of nuclear and chemical strikes on nuclear delivery means and reserves.

The beginning of the army's defensive operation may coincide, in time, with the initial nuclear strike of the front at the following times:
----- - when assuming the defense under the threat of enemy initiation of nuclear war;
----- - when enemy nuclear attacks are deemed likely in the course of combat actions conducted with conventional weapons.

Initiation of the offensive operation depends on the effectiveness of the front's initial nuclear strike and on the combat capabilities of friendly forces hit by enemy nuclear strikes.

When the defense is opted only after nuclear exchanges of both sides, the conduct of the defensive operations begins with the following:
----- - Delivery of repeated nuclear and chemical strikes;
----- - Air and artillery fires on newly detected enemy nuclear delivery means and on enemy groupings which have initiated the attack.

Meanwhile, measures are taken to restore combat capabilities of the troops. Therefore, destroying enemy groupings and foiling his attacks may be conducted by the following forms of action:
----- - launching nuclear and chemical strikes on enemy groupings on approaches to the defense (on assembly areas, during enemy advance and deployment for the attack);
----- - conducting counterpreparatory fire on enemy groupings which have deployed for the attack;
----- - inflicting losses on the enemy with nuclear and chemical weapons and fire of conventional means during the repulsion of enemy attacks;
----- - launching army counterblows on enemy groupings which have penetrated into the defense;
----- - initiating the offensive.

Selecting any one of the aforementioned forms of enemy destruction may in the course of the conduct of the army's defensive operation depend on the consequences of the following:
----- - nuclear strikes of front means;
----- - capabilities of the army for using nuclear and chemical weapons;
----- - composition of enemy groupings and character of his actions;
----- - status (sostayani) and situation of army troops.


Inflicting Enemy Losses on the Approaches to the Defense

When enemy striking groupings first advance and deploy and then initiate the attack, the actions of army troops are primarily directed toward foiling the enemy's preparation for attack. To insure achievement of this objective, strikes of rocket troops and the air force, using nuclear and chemical weapons and conventional means may be launched on the following areas:
----- - enemy nuclear delivery means;
----- - enemy main groupings of forces in approaches to the defense;
----- - enemy assembly and deployment areas;
----- - enemy command posts;
----- - important enemy rear service installations.

When prepared nuclear and chemical rounds and means of their delivery are available, strikes on advancing groupings of enemy forces may be launched when the enemy advances along the distant approaches to the defense. When delivery of massive nuclear strikes by nuclear delivery means of the front is feasible, strikes are aimed at foiling enemy preparations for the attack (counterblow).

When only a limited number of nuclear and chemical rounds are available, strikes are launched on the enemy during his advance along distant approaches to the defense in order to accomplish the following:
----- - delay concentration of enemy forces;
----- - gain the necessary time for preparing the defensive operation;
----- - weaken enemy forces prior to their initiation of the attack.


Air Force Targets

The air force primarily launches its strikes against moving targets. Meanwhile, the air force disrupts the movement of enemy groupings of forces and weakens enemy forces in their assembly areas and during their advance and deployment. The air forces also conduct the following:
----- - air reconnaissance;
----- - covers friendly troops and rear service targets against enemy air attacks (in coordination with air defense forces);
----- - detects and destroys enemy nuclear delivery means.

The rocket troops launch strikes primarily on permanent (fixed) targets and other targets the coordinates of which are known. Nuclear strikes of the rocket troops on moving columns of the enemy are launched when enemy columns are passing through areas where their maneuver to evade strikes of friendly forces is impossible or difficult. Such areas would be:
----- - crossings;
----- - passes;
----- - narrow passages;
----- - other areas.

Such strikes are launched on the basis of air reconnaissance information regarding the movement of enemy columns through such areas. The army's rocket brigade may launch nuclear strikes on targets located at a distance of 200 km from the forward line (FLOT).

It is recommended that strikes by the air force and rocket troops on the enemy forces be conducted with the use of chemical rounds in the following areas:
----- - assembly areas;
----- - enemy march columns while they pass through narrow passages;
----- - other difficult terrain.

As enemy forces come into range of tactical rockets (40-50 km from the forward line [FLOT]) they are hit by strikes of tactical rockets using nuclear and chemical rounds. Rounds are prepared in accordance with the orders of army or division commanders. Nuclear and chemical strikes are followed by artillery fire strikes. Given the limited number of forces and means in defense, including a small number of nuclear rounds it is often better to employ the following means:
----- - ground bursts of nuclear explosions;
----- - more persistent chemical weapons and incendiary material on enemy advance routes;
----- - create large contaminated areas;
----- - destroy and flood areas along enemy attack directions.

The aforementioned are done so that maximum losses can be inflicted on the enemy and the advance of the enemy forces is delayed for a longer period of time. In addition to inflicting direct losses on the enemy forces and delaying their advance on the approaches to the defense, the aforementioned measures taken by the defending forces, force the enemy to operate in contaminated areas and divide the enemy into individual groupings and may force the enemy to refrain from continuing the attack on the actual direction. In such circumstances the following must be taken into consideration:
----- - meteorological conditions;
----- - safety (security) distances to the friendly forces;
----- - nature of future actions.

When the enemy needs time to conduct the deployment of his nuclear delivery means and his other forces prior to the initiation of the attack, a counterpreparatory fire using nuclear, chemical, and conventional weapons may be launched against enemy groupings of forces which are conducting the attack. The aim of counterpreparatory fire may be foiling enemy preparations for the attack or weakening his striking forces. Conditions required for the conduct of counterpreparatory fire are the following:
----- - availability of the necessary number of prepared nuclear and chemical rounds which can support the delivery of massive strikes on the enemy;
----- - availability of the time required to prepare such strikes.

Since army forces assume the defense as a forced form of action because of the lack of forces and means and the superiority of the attacking enemy forces, the army will have a limited number of forces and means. Therefore, the army must make efforts to maximize the effects of the available means by using them economically, wisely, and efficiently at decisive phases and on important targets. Such a decisive phase may be the phase of deployment of the enemy groupings. Launching nuclear strikes on condensed (compact) enemy groupings during their deployment for the attack is more effective and preferred to hitting the enemy with nuclear strikes during his advance from the depth (along the distant approaches to the defense).

The front commander will be the organizer when the principle means for conducting counterpreparatory comes from the front.

Counterpreparatory fire is conducted by employing rocket troops, air force, artillery, and tanks who will launch massive strikes. When enemy striking groupings of forces are concentrated a long distance from the forward line (FLOT), counterpreparatory fire is engaged by rocket troops and the air force. Artillery engages and inflicts losses on enemy artillery troops located within its effective range.


Rocket Troops Targets

During counterpreparatory fire targets of rocket troops may be the following:
----- - groupings of first-echelon troops in attack departure areas (iskhodnie rayonie);
----- - deployment lines;
----- - second-echelon troops in assembly areas;
----- - command posts;
----- - control and warning centers;
----- - rocket launching pads in launching positions;
----- - nuclear artillery batteries in fire positions;
----- - air defense guided missiles batteries;
----- - bridges and crossings on advance routes;
----- - airfields of nuclear armed aircraft.


Air Force Targets

Targets of air force strikes will primarily include the following:
----- - nuclear rocket means;
----- - groupings of tanks in march;
----- - airfields;
----- - radio-electronic and control systems of the aircraft and the air defense forces;
----- - command posts which are not destroyed by rocket troops.


Artillery Targets

Artillery troops generally destroy enemy first-echelon troops which are not destroyed by the nuclear weapons. Within its effective range the artillery destroys the following:
----- - nuclear delivery means;
----- - enemy personnel and equipment;
----- - enemy artillery;
----- - important command posts.

Of the defending troops only the artillery operates in the area where counterpreparatory fire is planned and artillery of its adjacent areas participate in the counterpreparatory fire. Maneuver of second-echelon artillery forces and forces from other areas of the front are not practical under these circumstances because of the risk of their destruction by enemy nuclear strikes. Therefore, in order to achieve higher results, the employment of conventional artillery is sometimes taken into account in the conduct of counterpreparatory fire. Effectiveness of artillery fire during counterpreparatory fire may be increased by the use of chemical rounds.

Depending on the availability of the means of destruction in the army, the situation, particularly the number, situation, status (sostayani) of the enemy's striking groupings, the counterpreparatory fire may be launched simultaneously on all groupings of enemy forces which are preparing for the attack. It may also be launched only on the main groupings of the enemy. When a limited number of nuclear rounds are available, they must be used to destroy enemy nuclear delivery means or that part of the enemy forces which pose the major threat at the time. In this case other enemy troops and targets are destroyed by conventional means.

In order to decisively destroy enemy striking groupings which are making preparations for the attack and to seize areas which provide favorable conditions for initiating the attack or provide for the improvement of the situation regarding the army's defense, it is necessary to follow counterpreparatory fire with launching a thrust (udar) of tank and motorized troops against enemy groupings hit by counterpreparatory fire.

When counterpreparatory fire leads to decisive losses of enemy striking groupings, then in order to launch a powerful strike in front of the forward line (FLOT), capable forces are assigned to rapidly exploit the consequences of counterpreparatory fire for enemy destruction. Under such conditions strikes launched by individual units from the first-echelon large units are totally acceptable. Success of these troops may be developed by the main forces of the first-echelon large units or the second-echelon large units of the army.

When despite nuclear strikes, counterpreparatory fire, and strikes of forces in front of the forward line (FLOT) prepared enemy offensives can not be foiled, the army commander takes all measures to inflict losses on the enemy and repel enemy attacks by conducting defensive actions with first-echelon troops.


Repulsion of Enemy Attacks

When the strongest and the most threatening enemy groupings in the army's area are disclosed, additional strikes of rocket troops and the air force are launched against that grouping. The primary targets of these strikes are the following:
----- - enemy nuclear delivery means;
----- - groupings of tank troops;
----- - important enemy command post.

When nuclear weapons are available, fire strikes must also be launched on the following:
----- - approaching reserves;
----- - air fields;
----- - crossings;
----- - road centers;
----- - other targets.

On individual directions along with destroying enemy targets, radioactive and chemical contaminated areas may be created. The air defense means in coordination (interaction) with fighter aviation destroy the aerial enemy not allowing him to deliver strikes on defending troops and other friendly targets.

When the enemy initiates the attack the main effort of the defending forces is directed toward rapid and decisive destruction of the groupings of attacking forces in the defensive areas of the army's first-echelon divisions. This is insured by the following:
----- - delivering strikes of rocket troops, air force, and artillery using nuclear, chemical, and conventional rounds;
----- - firmly holding vital terrain lines and areas on directions of enemy attacks (up to the point when first-echelon individual units and large units may have to continue combat actions while the enemy encircles them).
----- - Surprise counterattacks of second-echelon troops and reserves.

In order to cover gaps resulting from enemy nuclear strikes artillery fire is concentrated and antitank reserves and mobile obstacle detachments of regiments and divisions are assigned. Part of second-echelon units, preferably tanks and BMP mounted motorized infantry are moved to cover the gaps when needed. In areas hit by enemy nuclear and chemical strikes, the following measures are taken:
----- - the situation is reconfirmed (re-evaluated);
----- - measures are taken to restore combat capabilities of troops;
----- - eliminate the consequences of the use of nuclear and chemical weapons.

When the enemy penetrates the defense, first-echelon large units are assigned to accomplish the following:
----- - firmly hold advantageous terrain lines and areas on important directions by fire and decisive counterattacks;
----- - inflict maximum losses on the enemy;
----- - divide enemy combat formations piecemeal;
----- - delay enemy advances to the depth.

These measures will provide favorable conditions for destroying penetrating enemy forces by counterblows from army second-echelon forces. Strikes of tactical nuclear rockets may be launched on enemy forces penetrating the defense.

When defense is conducted with nuclear weapons, counterattacks of second-echelon regiments are, as a rule, conducted simultaneously with counterattacks of second-echelon divisions. Prior to counterattacks losses are inflicted on the enemy by nuclear and chemical weapons, air strikes, and fire of all means. Strikes are launched in such a way that contaminated and destroyed areas do not impede maneuvers of counterattacking forces.

When nuclear weapons are massively used by the enemy and when the enemy has an obvious superiority in troops and means, particularly in tanks, counterattacks are normally not conducted. In this case divisions firmly defend their prepared positions and inflict losses on the enemy by all types of fire which will in itself lead to the creation of required conditions for army counterblows (kontre-udar).

In order to destroy enemy airborne assault landing troops, nuclear and chemical weapons are used and air strikes using conventional ammunition are launched. The closest reserves to the location of the landing areas of the enemy airborne troops, and primarily tank troops are rapidly moved to counter the enemy. Special attention must be directed toward the following:
----- - conducting measures to protect troops against mass-destruction weapons;
----- - eliminating the consequences of enemy use of mass-destruction weapons;
----- - restoration of disrupted troop control, air defense systems, combat capabilities of troops, and interaction among them primarily on the direction of the enemy's main attack.

In order to restore the combat capabilities of first-echelon forces the reserves may be employed. Relocation of the troops facing great losses due to radioactive and poisonous contamination is also affected. The rescue operation must be conducted in all arms with participation from all rescue units and subunits to accomplish the following:
----- - clear routes for maneuvers of troops;
----- - supplies and evacuation;
----- - medical decontamination of personnel;
----- - degassation (digazatsie) and disactivation (dizaktivatzie) of weapons and combat equipment.

Such efforts must be made first-priority in areas which will not intervene with actions of troops which are involved in intensive combat actions to repel enemy attacks and to destroy enemy airborne assault troops.

While repulsing enemy attacks, the army commander concentrates reconnaissance efforts to detect and disclose the following:
----- - enemy nuclear delivery means;
----- - other means of mass-destruction;
----- - radio-technical means;
----- - command posts.

Army commanders also take measures to quickly destroy such targets by all available means. Under some conditions tactical airborne assaults may be used to accomplish this task. Meanwhile, the army commander pays special attention to the following:
----- - issues of receiving and stockpiling nuclear rounds;
----- - establishing striking groupings and their supporting measures;
----- - thoroughly preparing massive nuclear strikes on groupings of enemy forces which have penetrated the defense;
----- - conducting counterblows.


Destruction of Penetrating (Breaking Through) Enemy Groupings and the Conduct of Army Counterblows (Kontre-Udar)

Groupings of enemy forces which have penetrated into the defense (or enemy breakthrough groupings) are destroyed by launching nuclear and chemical strikes against them in combination with fire of conventional means and conduct of decisive counterblows. Army counterblows using nuclear weapons will not only insure destruction of enemy groupings already in the defense or ones breaking through the defense, but it will also provide favorable conditions for the initiation of the army offensive.

Under conditions using nuclear weapons it is important that army counterblows be launched against one or both flanks of enemy groupings. Nevertheless, under such conditions counterblows may also be conducted from the front to divide enemy groupings and then to destroy them individually. Counterblows from the front are obviously launched when the army possesses nuclear rounds for inflicting decisive losses on the attacking enemy groupings or when the movement of large units of army first-echelon to the flanks of the enemy groupings requires a great amount of time due to terrain conditions. Counterblows may also be conducted in a combined form of frontal and flank strikes launched simultaneously. During counterblows nuclear strikes are launched on the most vital and well known enemy targets. Damaging these targets will provide for quick destruction of penetrating enemy groupings. Such targets include the following:
----- - nuclear weapons;
----- - enemy troops in his main groupings of forces, primarily tanks;
----- - approaching reserves;
----- - enemy command posts.

To conduct the counterblow the following groups operating along directions of planned counterblows are assigned:
----- - army rocket troops;
----- - supporting aircraft;
----- - artillery;
----- - second-echelon divisions;
----- - army reserves;
----- - first-echelon large units and units.

In order to insure success during the conduct of counterblows, it is required that the following be accomplished:
----- - newly detected enemy nuclear delivery means be destroyed;
----- - losses be inflicted on enemy reserves which are approaching from the depth;
----- - groupings of friendly forces which conduct counterblows must be effectively and reliably covered against enemy air attacks;
----- - flanks of the groupings be supported by deployment of antitank reserves, mobile obstacle detachments, and establishment of engineer obstacles.

Operational formations (operativnie postroeyenie) of troops assigned to launch counterblows must rapidly exploit consequences resulting form the use of nuclear weapons and must insure delivery of a powerful initial strike and complete destruction of enemy attacking forces in a short time. When selecting the direction of counterblows the following are taken into consideration:
----- - destroyed terrain;
----- - high risk radioactive contaminated areas;
----- - areas contaminated with poisonous material.

Counterblows must begin after delivery of massive nuclear and chemical strikes. Following nuclear strikes an artillery preparatory fire consisting of fire strikes lasting 10-15 minutes may be launched when required. In order to insure effective artillery preparatory fire it may begin with a fire strike of chemical ammunition lasting one minute. Artillery support is conducted by concentrated fires, and fire on individual targets on call.

The actions of large units participating in counterblows must be characterized by decisiveness and must continue without halt so that enemy main groupings are destroyed quickly and conditions are created for the initiation of decisive offensives by all army troops.

While conducting counterblows, heliborne assault troops may be employed to seize and destroy the following:
----- - nuclear delivery means;
----- - command posts;
----- - signal centers;
----- - seize advantageous terrain areas on advance routes of enemy reserves.

After destroying enemy groupings which have penetrated into the defense and restoring the previous situation, all army troops must be prepared for the initiation of attack. For this purpose during the conduct of the defensive operation the following must be accomplished:
----- - necessary regroupment of forces;
----- - restore reserves;
----- - replenish supply reserves.

In order to insure these measures the army is reinforced by the front's troops.