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SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
HANDBOOK

 

CHAPTER FOUR

 

Front

 
 

I. THE STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF FIELD TROOP CONTROL ORGANS


 
 

Organization of Front Headquarters

The troop control system of the front is similar in basic structure to that of the army (Chapter Three). Such differences as exist are due to the greatly increased scope of activities required of a front level headquarters in comparison with an army. (See Figure 40 for complete diagram of the headquarters.) In addition the front controls aviation forces, which require additional features not found in an army. The following main components of the front headquarters are directed by and responsible to the commander in chief (C-IN-C) of front forces (see Figure 41 for the main components of front headquarters):
- first deputy C-IN-C;
- front staff, controlled by the front chief of staff.  He is the principal organizer of the front field operations;
- deputy C/S;
- chiefs of combat arms;
- chiefs of special troops;
- chiefs of services.

The front staff is composed of the following elements:
- operations directorate, which consists of the following elements:
- operations division;
- information division;
- hydro-meteorological department;
- special department;
- reconnaissance directorate, which consists of the following departments:
--- 1st department - military reconnaissance;
--- 2nd department - clandestine reconnaissance;
-- 3rd department - special reconnaissance;
-- 4th department - information;
-- 5th department - signal reconnaissance;
-- special communications department;
-- special department;
- communications directorate, which is composed of the following departments:
-- 1st department - radio communications;
-- 2nd department - radio relay communications;
-- 3rd department - cryptology secret automatic (computer) control;
-- 4th department - communications for forward and alternate command post;
-- 5th department - mail communications;
-- 6th department - supply;
-- special department.
- organizations and mobilization directorate, which organizes and manages enlisted military personnel of the front;

services of the front staff, which provide special support to all directorates of the front staff and is composed of the following departments:
- political department of staff
- topographical service;
- 8th department of special communications;
- radio-electronic combat department;
- inspectorate of measuring instruments;
- military censorship department;
- printing office;
- department of commandant's service;
- department of troop services (morale and discipline).

The chiefs of combat arms branches:
- chief of rocket and artillery troops, who is assisted by the staff of rocket and artillery troops to command the following departments:
- operations department;
- reconnaissance department;
- special department.
- chief of air defense troops commands the following departments:
--- 1st department - operations;
- --2nd department - radar reconnaissance;
--- 3rd department - communications and automatic guidance systems;
--- 4th department - utilization of equipment;
--- special department.

The chiefs of special troops:
- chief of engineer troops commands the following departments:
- operational reconnaissance department;
- engineer-technical department;
- engineer equipment;
- secret documents.
- chief of chemical troops commands the following departments:
- reconnaissance and estimates of radiological fallout department;
- chemical equipment department;
- operations department
- special department.

Front rear services is commanded by deputy C-IN-C/chief of front rear service.  The rear services staff is composed of the following elements:
- food service directorate;
- POL directorate;
- uniform/clothing directorate;
- medical service directorate;
- veterinary service directorate;
- combat supplies directorate;
- troop billeting department;
- special department.

The deputy/chief of front technical and armament services controls the following:
- chief of armor equipment;
- chief of rocket and artillery armament;
- chief of motor transport equipment;


Other chiefs of services include:
- chief of cadre - for officers and career NCOs only;
- chief of finance.

Front political directorate, headed by deputy C-IN-C/chief of front political affairs, who is responsible for the political readiness of the front forces.
Front higher military council is formed to advise front C-IN-C on major decisions. Front C-IN-C is the chairman of the council and the members (in descending order of importance) are the following officers:
- (1) deputy C-IN-C/chief of political affairs;
- (2) 1st deputy C-IN-C;
- (3) chief of staff;
- (4) deputy C-IN-C/chief of rear services;
- (5) chief of rocket and artillery troops;
- (6) deputy C-IN-C/ chief of technical and armament services;
- (7) two or three additional officers, as designated by front C-IN-C.



 
 

Command Posts and Their Functions

The front deploys a series of command posts similar in number and function, but much larger and more complex than those at army.

 
 

Figure 41 - Front Headquarters


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Figure 42 - Main components of Front headquarters


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Figure 43 - Front command post and direct support elements


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Guard and Direct Support Elements of the Front Headquarters

The following units provide guard, service, engineer, construction and air transportation support to the front headquarters:
- guard and service regiment guards and protects the front headquarters and provides electrical, chemical defense, and engineer support to the wartime front command post;
- engineer battalion constructs front command posts sites and improves the immediate areas;
- mixed aircraft courier regiment provides air transport and courier service for the staff officers of front headquarters.



Front's Signal Troops -- Missions and Capabilities

The following are front signal units and installations which include signal centers, line troops, mail units, and supply and repair troops:


Signal Troops

Signal troops assigned to establish signal centers:
- signal regiment: assigned to establish and operate the communications network of the front's command post. The regiment can establish signal communications for the front's main command post (KP) in two locations. The regiment is composed of two battalions each establishing the (CP) communication in one location.
- front's forward command post (PKP) signal communication battalion: assigned to establish the communication of the front's forward command post (PKP). It is able to provide communication in one location.
- signal regiment for rear service control points (TPU): establishes, in two locations, the communications for rear service control point (TPU) with the rear service units and installations and with the lower echelons. The regiment is composed of two battalions. \
-- signal battalion for auxiliary signal centers (VUS): establishes six auxiliary signal centers.
-- signal cable and line battalion: assigned to establish communication lines within command posts. The battalion is capable of establishing up to 500 km of communication lines.
-- radio control center (traffic surveillance): is designated to monitor the observation of radio and radio-relay communication security rules and regulations for secrecy of troop control in formations and large units organic to the front.



Line Communication Units

Line communication units are assigned to install radio-relay and telephone lines, rokad (lateral) lines (parallel to the front line) and the main axes and directions of line communication. An axis is a trunk line having many channels. A direction is a single pair of subscribers on a dedicated line. In radio communications the multiple subscriber system is called a net (set) and the single pairs are called directions. They include the following units:
- two radio-relay line battalions: assigned to establish the front's radio-relay axis and the front's rokad. (lateral lines) They are capable of installing up to 1,000 km of axis and rokad lines.
- two remote (long-range) communication battalions: assigned to establish (install) the front's rokad. Each battalion is capable of installing lines up to 480 km.
- two battalions for installing-exploiting of cable lines, that is exploiting existing communications or installing new wire: assigned to establish permanent aerial (overhanging) lines and cables. Each battalion is capable of installing 320 km of cable and 100 km of aerial (overhanging) communication lines.
- communication line battalions: assigned to install and establish line communication of armies. Each battalion is capable of installing up to 400 km of communication lines. The number of such battalions in the front corresponds to the number of armies organic to the front.
- rocket brigade line communications battalion: assigned to install and establish line communication for the front's rocket brigades. Each battalion is capable of installing up to 280 km of communication lines. The number of such battalions in the front corresponds to the number of rocket brigades organic to the front.
- underground line communication company: assigned to install underground communication cables.
- the signal company for communications with civilian centers operates communications between front and civilian centers in the front area of operations;
- the rear services long-range signal battalion provides distribution points for classified documents and messages.



Mail Stations and Installations and Combined Signal Aviation Regiment

Mail stations and installations and combined signal aviation regiments are assigned to deliver classified combat documents to higher headquarters, subordinates, and interacting troops. They include the following:
- forward field mail center;
- rear field mail center;
- field mail stations.

Several field mail stations are established in the front located in the front's forward command post, main command post, rear service control points, and headquarters of the front's subordinate troops. These stations are responsible for the flow of mail:
- field mail centers of the front's bases and state mail agency: assigned to deliver personal and state (government) mail.
- combined signal aviation regiment: assigned to transport staff officers and deliver documents to specified points. The regiment is composed of two squadrons:
- helicopter squadron which consists of 10 Mi-4 or Mi-8 helicopters and 6 Mi-1 or Mi-2 helicopters;
- fixed-wing squadron which consists of 6 AN-2 aircraft and 6 Yak-12 aircraft.



Signal Supply and Repair Units

Signal supply and repair units which consist of the following:
- four signal supply and repair depots;
- two mobile signal repair bases.

Only staff officers from the front headquarters are used as couriers of classified documents and messages.



Preparation of Front and Army Mobile and Airborne Command Posts

To accommodate front and army mobile and airborne command posts, armored personnel carriers, combat vehicles, helicopters, and fixed-wing aircraft are specially prepared and equipped with different types of signal communication means as shown below. Such vehicles can enter into the command communications network and provide communications for the commander with subordinate and higher staffs and troops. Examples of an army and front mobile command posts on a combat vehicle are shown in the following figures.

 
 

Figure 44 - Front signal units


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Figure 45 - Front communications system


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Figure 46 - Airborne command posts


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Figure 47 - Army mobile command post vehicle


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Figure 48 - Front mobile command post vehicle


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Figure 49 - Front command post composition


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Figure 50 - Front command post dimensions


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Figure 51 - Front (army) command post schematic


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Figure 52 - Schematic layout of front air army control system


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Troop Control System of Front Aviation

The troop control system of front aviation is obliged to accomplish the following missions:
- control the front aviation in the air and on the ground;
- provide interaction between front aviation troops and ground forces including the issue of mutual identification;
- control movement, operation, flights, and provide flight security of all flying means in the areas of responsibility of front aviation;

The following control points are established in the front aviation combat troop control system:
- front aviation command post (KPBA) is established 10 to 15 km from the front command post;
- forward command post of frontaviation (PKPVA) is established in the area of the frontforward command post;
- rear command post of front aviation (TPUVA) is established 10 - 15 km from the front aviation command post;
- airborne command post of front aviation (VKPVA) is established on a helicopter or aircraft at the closest airfield;
- combat troop control center of front aviation's fighter aircraft (TSBUIAVA) is established at the front air defense command post (KPPVO) and is designated for control of fighter aircraft during covering of troops and rear services installations against enemy air strikes, particularly during the repelling of mass flights, and for the conduct of interaction of fighter aircraft with air defense means;
- combat control centers of front aviation (TSBUVA) are deployed at the command posts of first-echelon combined arms and tank armies and, depending on the number of first-echelon armies, they may number from 2 to 3. These centers are designated to conduct interaction of aviation troops with army troops, control of front aircraft and control of action of all aviation units and various aircraft in the operational areas of the combined arms and tank armies;
- guidance and target designation points (PNTS); Two to three of these points are established in each combat control center of the air armies (TSVUVA). These points are designated to insure the arrival of aircraft on the ground targets, guidance of fighter aircraft to air targets, provide interaction with air defense rocket units, insure mutual identification between aircraft and ground forces, and provide flight security for the aircraft;
- combat control groups (GBU) are established at the command posts of first-echelon motorized rifle and tank divisions, and in the combined arms armies; They may number six to nine. These groups are designated for coordination of aviation troops with motorized rifle and tank divisions, and airborne assault troops, to provide mutual identification between aircraft and ground forces and guidance of aircraft to ground targets;
- target definition posts (PTS) are attached to combat control groups (GBU) and are deployed to show targets to the aircraft. These posts are established on helicopters, small aircraft, infantry combat vehicles (BMP), or armored personnel carriers (APC);
- radio navigation points (RNP) are assigned to guide aircraft and to support the flight of aircraft in the area of combined arms and tank armies and to designate for friendly aircraft the flight corridor from the front line into the enemy area. There may be 2 to 3 of these;
-air observation posts (PVN) are established in motorized rifle and tank divisions to observe and perform visual reconnaissance of the air situation and for observation of air targets at low altitude, which cannot be covered by radar;
- command posts (KP) are established for fighter, fighter-bomber, and bomber aviation divisions;
- forward command posts (PKP) are established for fighter, fighter-bomber, and bomber aviation divisions;
- - aviation regiment command posts (KP) are established for the different aviation regiments.




 
 

II. MISSIONS, RESPONSIBILITIES, AND DUTIES OF COMMAND PERSONNEL


 
 

Introduction

This section describes the major duties of the principal staff officers (or their sections) during the planning of front operations. It also includes listings of the recommendations they make to the commander as part of the estimate of the situation procedure and decision-making process.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Front Commander:

The front commander is the principal organizer of the combat operations of the front and he personally or through his staff commands and controls the troops in combat. The commander accomplishes the following tasks:
- conduct of training to insure high combat readiness of the troops, combat arms and services and troop control organs of the front to accomplish likely combat missions in the future;
- control and supervision of the procedures used to bring the front to full strength in terms of personnel, weapons, equipment, technical and material requirements, and other supplies.


The commander is responsible for the combat capability of subordinate troops, the organization of combat operations, the maintenance of un-disrupted troop control, and successful accomplishment of combat missions.

The commander clarifies the combat mission by himself or jointly with the chief of staff and the chief of the political affairs directorate. He instructs the chief of staff on preparing the combat arms, supporting arms and services as well as the staffs for combat and gives his instructions about the timing of preparations for of the attack and combat operation. The commander estimates the situation by himself or he listens to the reports and suggestions of the chiefs of combat and combat support arms and service about the employment of their troops. He listens to the suggestions of the chief of staff about his deductions from the estimate of the situation and proposed decisions. Accordingly he makes his rational decision, issues combat missions to subordinates and gives instructions about planning the operation.

The commander organizes interaction among the troops, supporting troops, adjacents, and other elements of the armed forces operating in the front area of responsibility.

The commander issues instructions about all-round support of the operation.

The commander personally or through his staff controls the preparation of combat arms and combat support arms and services for the operation and accomplishment of the assigned mission. He extends necessary assistance to subordinate troops .

The commander is obliged constantly and thoroughly to evaluate and to analyze the situation during the course of the operation and to predict likely changes in the situation. Under any circumstances the commander is to make a rational and timely decision in accordance with the changes in the situation and to issue new combat missions to subordinate troops.

The commander should always be prepared to report to the supreme command or general staff about the situation, status and character of operations of the friendly and enemy troops and his current decision.
The commander briefs the chief of staff about his concept and intention and aim. He also briefs the chief of staff about any instructions he personally issued to subordinate troops.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Staff

The chief of staff is the first deputy commander and the supervisor of the front staff. Only the chief of staff is eligible to issue in the name of the commander instructions and orders to operational formations, and large units, the chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, and other responsible officers directly under command of the front commander. He should report to the commander about all orders he has issued. The chief of staff accomplishes the following tasks or duties:
- he is responsible for all duties to be accomplished by the staff;
- the chief of staff briefs the deputy commander, chiefs of staff directorates, and chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services about the mission and gives instructions about the preparation of preliminary warning orders, calendar plans, and calculations for the decision-making process. He sets the deadlines for their preparation;
- the chief of staff is constantly obliged to know the situation and to predict likely changes in the situation and to be prepared to report the following items to the commander:
-- (1) situation and status and character of friendly and enemy forces' operations;
-- (2) deductions from his estimate of the situation and his proposed decision;
-- (3) measures on organization of troop control, coordination, and support of the combat action of friendly troops.

The chief of staff coordinates the operation of the staff and specifies the coordinating measures to all chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services concerning organs of troop control and adjacents. He coordinates the operation of all organs and controls their performance.

The planning of the operation is conducted under the leadership of the chief of staff. The chief of staff personally prepares some important documents such as the combat directive and participates in preparation and working out of some other issues and documents. He supervises the process of their preparation.

The chief of staff should be aware of all orders and instructions issued by the commander and should control their execution.

All directives orders and instructions that should be issued to operational formations and large units as well as all plans and important combat documents are signed or approved by the chief of staff.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Operations

The chief of operations is one of the most important directorate chiefs responsible for training and the preparation during combat of the operation. He has the following duties:
- preparing warning orders, calendar plans, and sometimes personally writing the combat directives and preparing other important documents;
- preparing calculations required for the commander to make the decision;
- planning the front operation and preparing the annexes to the plan such as the plan of the initial nuclear strike, operational concealment plan, plan of protection of troops against mass destructive weapons, plan of restoration of troop combat capabilities. The plan of employment of air assault operations, plans of movement and deployment of front troops and FUP's etc.
- issuing and conveying combat missions to subordinate operational formations and large units:
- collecting, studying, and analyzing situation information;
- timely presenting and dispatch of information about the situation and regular situation reports to higher headquarters, dispatch of information to subordinate unit staffs, the combat and combat support arms and services, the headquarters of coordinating elements and adjacents about all changes in the situation;
- organizing and maintaining continuous coordination and preparing documents on interaction;
- organizing and deploying command posts and controlling their relocation during the course of the operation;
- organizing signal communications and designating the troop control signals;
- monitoring the preparation of troops for combat operations;
- monitoring accomplishment of combat missions by subordinates and extension of required assistance to them-prepare combat documents about troop control.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Reconnaissance

The chief of reconnaissance is responsible for the training, and insures the high combat readiness of the reconnaissance troops. He exercises command and control over them and supervises the conduct of the operation of reconnaissance units and sub-units. He is responsible for the following items:
- collection, study and analysis of the derivation of deductions about reconnaissance information about the enemy and terrain and timely presentation of the important information to the chief of staff and higher commander and staff;
- derivation of the aims and tasks of reconnaissance and the allocation of required troops and reconnaissance means to accomplish these;
- preparation of the reconnaissance plan and issuance of missions to the reconnaissance directorate staff. The reconnaissance plan is signed by the chief of staff and approved by the commander;
- coordination of all efforts of different reconnaissance means in terms of their missions and objectives;
- preparation of units and sub-units (groups) (GRG from SPETZNAZ) at army level which has two sections each with 4 groups. The front level battalion has 35 to 40 groups operating up to 800 km deep;
- preparation of unit and sub-units assigned to conduct reconnaissance and insuring their all-around support;
- control of the execution of assigned instructions and orders and practical assistance to staffs and commanders of units and sub-units in accomplishment of reconnaissance missions;
- organization of continuous communications with units and sub-units (groups) assigned to combat reconnaissance and also with the headquarters of subordinate operational formations and large units;
- reception of reconnaissance reports from aircraft;
- organization and conduct of actions about the protection of reconnaissance units, sub-units, and groups against mass-destruction weapons;
- communication of reconnaissance information inside the staff and to subordinate, adjacent, and coordinating headquarters.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Rocket Troops and Artillery

The front chief rocket troops and artillery is an important member of the organs of troop control. He controls the rocket and artillery forces in peace and wartime. He fulfills the following tasks:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects measures for achieving higher levels of combat and operational preparation of the artillery forces of the front;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects special operational, combat, and political training of the forces and staff of the rocket troops and artillery of the front and of subordinate formations;
- prepares operational and combat calculations on the employment of
-artillery during the commander's decision making process;
- suggests operational and combat employment of rocket troops and artillery.
- must know the manning level, situation, conditions, and combat capability of the units and sub-units of rockets and artillery;
- reports on the situation and operational and combat use of these units during the decision process.
- organizes the actions and plans the combat use and operational activities of the RT&A in response to the front commander's decision and the instructions from higher staff on artillery;
- issues combat missions and combat instructions to the RT&A troops of the front and to the RT&A staffs of the subordinate formations;
- organizes and plans the grouping of the artillery forces and their preparation of FUP areas; also insures preparation of firing positions for rockets and artillery units with the objective of providing cover and concealment for the artillery while they are providing artillery cover and support for the forces on the main attack axis;
- insures preparation of rocket troops and artillery for accomplishment of their assigned missions;
- plans and conducts all-around combat support measures in the interest of RT&A;
- provides constant support and assistance for the front forces with various kinds of ammunition, artillery supplies, weapons, and rockets;
- creates supply dumps for artillery combat supplies filled to the designated norms at all levels and then insures transport of ammunition and artillery supplies to the forces during the operation;
- organizes interaction of rocket troops and artillery with other front operational elements and the forces of the front operating in the front area during the conduct of the operation, especially in accomplishment of the most important missions;
- constantly inspects the accomplishment of orders and instructions by subordinate forces;
- renders necessary assistance to front RT&A forces and to subordinate formations and units.

The chief of RT&A during the operation must know the situation, condition, manning level, and capabilities of his subordinate forces and be prepared at any time to report about this to the front commander or chief of staff. He is prepared to provide suggestions on the proper operational and combat employment of the RT&A.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of PVO:

The front chief of air defense is responsible for all aspects of the air defense troops in peace and war and fulfills the following tasks:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the high combat readiness of the PVO forces with the aim of covering the front forces and rear service targets from enemy air strikes (blows);
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the special, operational, combat, and political training of the air defense forces and staffs and of PVO units and formations of the subordinate formations;
- prepares calculations and recommendations on the operational and combat employment of air defense forces during the commander's decision making and during the forthcoming combat;
- must know the situation, status, manning level, and combat capabilities of the formations and units of air defense at any time and stage of the operation and give his suggestions on their operational employment to the front commander;
- organizes the combat and operational actions of the air defense forces and he prepares the plan of their operational and combat actions during the operation in accordance with the front commander's decision;
- issues combat decisions and instructions to front air defense forces and to the staffs of the subordinate formations;
- accomplishes the regrouping of the air defense forces, prepares them for the operation, maintains their constant combat readiness for repelling the enemy's air blows, creates the system of air defense reconnaissance, and establishes a reliable fire system of air defense.
- organizes uninterrupted technical preparation of the guided rockets (rockets) of air defense before and during the course of the operation;
- organizes all-around operational and combat support measures of the PVO forces during the preparation and during the course of the operation;
- organizes interaction between formations and units of air defense of the front and fighter aviation of the front and the PVO means of the formations and units of the front and PVO of the front and adjacents;
- organizes and controls the establishing of the air defense center for combat control - reconnaissance and notification - the center for signal communications and organization of reliable and constant communications;
- performs reliable and constant inspection of the execution of instructions and directives that have been issued to the forces and provides necessary assistance to subordinate formations and units of air defense and their staffs.

The chief of air defense of the front during the operation must know the situation, status, combat capabilities of subordinate forces and, when the front commander or chief of staff requests, he must report on the situation and status of PVO forces and his own recommendations on their combat employment.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Engineer Troops

The chief of engineers controls the engineer troops in peacetime and war and fulfills the following duties:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects high combat readiness and operational preparedness of the engineer forces of the front and the engineer units of the formations and units and their staffs for fulfilling support of the forces of the front for operations;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the special, operational, combat, and political training of the engineer forces of the front and of the formations and units and their staffs;
- prepares operational and combat calculations in support of the commander's decision and for the operational and combat employment of the engineer forces;
- must know the situation, composition, combat capability, and manning level of the formations, units, and sub-units of engineer forces;
- prepares and gives his recommendations on the operational and combat employment of engineer forces to the front commander, during the commander's making the decision.
- organizes the operational and combat employment and the planning for the engineer forces in accordance with the front commander's decision and orders and the instructions received from the senior headquarters staff;
- conducts the grouping and deployment of the engineer forces during the preparation phase and according to mission during the conduct of the operation;
- prepares, issues, and transmits combat orders (missions) to the front engineer forces and instructions on the use of engineers to the staffs of subordinate formations and units;
- organizes and conducts engineer reconnaissance of the enemy and terrain during the preparation phase and during the course of the operation and organizes the interaction of engineer reconnaissance with general reconnaissance;
- provides engineer support for preparation of FUP areas for the first-echelon formations and for the covering forces on the border and of deployment areas for the second-echelon forces and reserves;
- prepares positions for the rocket troops and artillery and the PVO forces. takes engineer measures on blocking enemy surprise attacks during the preparation phase and during the course of the operation;
- prepares movement routes for the relocation and maneuver of the second-echelon, rocket troops, PVO forces, and command posts;
- prepares engineer construction (fortification) of deployment areas, and front command posts during the preparation phase and during the course of the operation.
- participates in the planning for operational maskirovka and in taking measures to accomplish it in accordance with the front plan;
- participates in planning and support for the defense of forces and rear service installations against enemy use of mass-destruction weapons and in the liquidation of the results of their use and the restoration of the combat capability (effectiveness) of the forces, rear services, and staffs, during the preparation phase and course of the operation;
- provides engineer support for the movement and deployment of front forces in the enemy covering force area, support for the breaching of enemy obstacles and mine fields during breakthrough of his prepared defenses, and support for the development of the attack of first-echelon formations;
- provides engineer support for front forces during the forcing of water obstacles;
- provides engineer support for the movement and commitment into the engagement of the front second-echelon forces;
- prepares the engineer forces for the fulfillment of all operational and combat missions;
- plans and conducts all-around combat support for the engineer forces;
- provides support of front forces during the preparation phase and the course of the operation by engineer forces and means, weapons, and technical equipment and establishes the proper reserves of engineer materials up to the prescribed norms;
- organizes the interaction of engineer forces with other forces and elements of the operational formation of the front during the fulfillment of the most important missions;
- organizes troop control and the creation of reliable and constant signal communications with the engineer forces and other elements of the operational and combat formation of the front with whom they have organized interaction;
- conducts constant, reliable control (inspection) of the fulfillment of all orders and instructions that are sent to subordinates and renders them assistance to fulfill their missions.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Chemical Troops

The front chief of chemical troops directs the front chemical forces in peacetime and war and fulfills the following duties.
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the high combat readiness and operational preparedness of the chemical forces of the front and the chemical units of the formations and units and their staffs for fulfilling support of the forces of the front for operations;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the special, operational, combat, and political training of the chemical forces of the front and of the formations and units and their staffs;
- prepares operational and combat calculations in support of the commander's decision and for the operational and combat employment of the chemical forces;
- must know the situation, composition, combat capability, and manning level of the formations, units, and sub-units of chemical forces;
- prepares and gives his recommendations on the operational and combat employment of chemical forces to the front commander, during the commander's making the decision;
- organizes the operational and combat employment and the planning for the chemical forces in accordance with the front commander's decision and orders and the instructions received from the senior headquarters staff;
- conducts the grouping and deployment of the chemical forces during the preparation phase and according to mission during the conduct of the operation;
- prepares, issues, and transmits combat orders (missions) to the front chemical forces and instructions on chemical support to the staffs of subordinate formations and units;
- organizes and conducts radiation and chemical reconnaissance and participates in bacteriological reconnaissance during the preparation phase and during the course of the operation and organizes the interaction of chemical reconnaissance with general reconnaissance;
- issues combat orders (missions) and instructions to the front chemical forces and prepares combat instructions on chemical support for the formations and units of the front;
- prepares the area for deployment of the front chemical forces with engineer construction (fortification) and insures their cover and maskirovka;
- prepares his forces for the fulfillment of operational and combat missions;
- establishes the system for defining and determining the coordinates and parameters of nuclear bursts;
- organizes and conducts special and field cleaning of personnel (decontamination);
- organizes and conducts disinfection, and decontamination of weapons, equipment, material means, locations, roads, and other items as required;
- conducts inspection of the level of radioactive and chemical contamination of personnel and combat equipment, weapons, locations, supplies, and installations.
- inspects for changes in the level of contamination and conducts analysis of the radiation and chemical situation;
- controls the preparation and employment of chemical weapons, bacteriological weapons, smoke means, and fire weapons;
- participates in interaction with the operations directorate, engineer directorate, and other responsible chiefs of arms and services and the rear staff in organizing and planning for the protection of front forces and rear installations against the enemy use of mass-destruction weapons and plans for the restoration of combat effectiveness and liquidation of the results of such enemy employment of mass weapons;
- plans for the all-around combat support of chemical forces;
- provides constant support for chemical forces and for formations and units of all arms and services and special services and rear installations of the front with various chemical weapons, supplies, chemical protective gear, ammunition, and chemical technical means. establishes chemical supply depots to the required stock level norms;
- organizes interaction with other arms and services of the front combat structure during the fulfillment of the most important front missions;
- organizes troop control and establishes constant, reliable signal communications with subordinate chemical units and other elements of the front operational order with whom the chemical forces interact;
- conducts constant inspection for the fulfillment of orders and instructions issued to subordinate forces and renders assistance;



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Signal Troops

The front chief of signal troops directs the front signal forces in peacetime and war and fulfills the following duties:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects high combat readiness and operational preparedness of the signal forces of the front and the signal units of the formations and units and their staffs for fulfilling support of the forces of the front for operations;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the special, operational, combat, and political training of the signal forces of the front and of the formations and units and their staffs;
- prepares operational and combat calculations in support of the commander's decision and for the operational and combat employment of the signal troops;
- must know the situation, composition, combat capability, and manning level of the formations, units, and sub-units of signal forces;
- prepares and gives his recommendations on the operational and combat employment of signal forces for the creation of reliable and constant communications to the front commander, during the commander's making the decision
- organizes the operational and combat employment and the planning for the signal forces in accordance with the front commander's decision and orders of the chief of staff and the instructions received from the senior headquarters staff;
- organizes timely, reliable, uninterrupted, and secret communications with forces, staffs, control organs, and subordinate staffs and neighbors;
- plans signal communications in peacetime and during the preparation phase and course of the operation;
- conducts the grouping and deployment of the signal forces during the preparation phase and according to mission during the conduct of the operation;
- prepares, issues, and transmits combat orders (missions) to the front signal forces and instructions on signal matters to the staffs of subordinate formations and units;
- prepares his forces for the fulfillment of operational and combat missions in providing reliable and uninterrupted signal communications during the preparation phase and the course of the operation;
- sends in a timely manner the signals and commands for raising the forces to various higher levels of combat readiness;
- sends the warning signals (alerts) on the enemy's preparations to employ nuclear strikes;
- sends the signal ordering the rocket troops to fire their nuclear strike;
- provides support with reliable and uninterrupted signal communications for the commander, chief of staff, and troop control organs with the commanders and staffs of subordinate forces starting from the first combat alert signal to the fulfillment of the subsequent mission (i.e all the time;)
- provides signal support for interaction with front forces, large units, and formations of all arms and services, elements of the front combat order, second-echelons, reserves, and interacting forces of the front who are operating in the front area and with adjacents;
- provides support by sending warning signals, data, and commands on the air situation, radiological, chemical, and bacteriological contamination, and meteorological situation in a timely manner;
- provides signal support to the rear services with communications between rear service units and installations and the rear of subordinate formations and units;
- establishes the main and alternate signal centers and organizes radio, radio-relay, and telephone nets and directions to provide reliable and uninterrupted signal support;
- provides mobile signal (courier) service on directions and circular routes between the command posts and other points;
- plans and conducts all-around combat support of the signal forces themselves;
- organizes and conducts replenishment and supply of signal means and their timely repair;
- organizes and conducts constant inspection over the orders and instructions sent to subordinates and their constant control in observation of secrecy of troop control;
- offers assistance to subordinates.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Radio-Electronic Warfare

The Chief of radio-electronic combat controls his forces in peace and wartime and fulfills the following duties:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects measures for achieving higher levels of operational and combat readiness of radio-electronic warfare forces;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects special, operational, political,and combat training of his forces and staffs;
- prepares detailed operational and combat calculations on all aspects of radio-electronic combat, especially of enemy radio-electronic targets and their capabilities for electronic combat, during the decision process. During the operation he prepares operational calculations for the employment of the combat arms, special forces, and especially the forces of radio-electronic combat;
- also makes detailed calculations on the capabilities of his units for radio- electronic combat with respect to reconnaissance, jamming, and destruction of the signal system, radio- electronic combat means, reconnaissance means, and others;
- must know the situation, conditions, and manning level of units and sub-units of his forces;
- makes recommendations on combat missions and enemy targets, during the commander's decision making process;
- issues the combat directive and combat instructions on radio-electronic combat to the radio-electronic combat forces and to the subordinate staffs;
- prepares the deployment areas (FUP areas) for radio-electronic forces from the point of view of engineer preparation (fortification) and camouflage;
- prepares the radio-electronic combat forces for fulfillment of operational and combat missions;
- plans all-around combat support measures for these forces;
- organizes interaction with other front forces and the operational elements of the combat formation to fulfill the most important operational missions;
- organizes and inspects the establishment of un-interrupted and robust communications with subordinate units;
- conducts constant inspection of fulfillment of orders and instructions that were sent to subordinates and renders assistance for them to fulfill their missions;

The chief of radio-electronic combat, together with the chief of reconnaissance and other chiefs of staff directorates and organs of troop control, evaluates the radio-electronic situation and prepares recommendations to the chief of staff on the organization of radio-electronic combat.

In accordance with the front commander's decision, instructions of the chief of staff, and instructions of the front staff on radio-electronic combat, he organizes the actions of the radio-electronic forces and plans their actions.

The chief of radio-electronic combat, together with the chief of the operations directorate, evaluates the quality of own command posts and other radio-electronic targets against enemy action for both nuclear and conventional war situations.

The chief of radio-electronic combat, with other chiefs who participate in radio- electronic combat, designates the basic measures for the conduct of radio-electronic combat and incorporates them in all the basic plans, such as the operations plan, reconnaissance plan, plan for defense against mass weapons, SPETZNAZ plan, airborne landing plan, plans of radio and radio-technical reconnaissance units, plans for rocket forces and artillery, plan of PVO, signal plan, engineer support plan, chemical support plan, maskirovka plan, and others.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Chief of Armament and Technical Services

The chief of armament and technical services is the deputy of the front commander for technical services and also directs the units and sub-units responsible for supply, evacuation and repair of front material in peace and wartime and fulfills the following duties:
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects measures for bringing these forces to higher combat readiness;
- organizes, plans, directs, and inspects measures for special, combat, operational, technical, and political training of his forces and subordinate staffs;
- must know the situation, condition, capabilities, and manning level of these units and sub-units and also the status of the front's large units and units with technical equipment, armament, spare parts and maintenance supplies, ammunition, and technical instruments;
- prepares recommendations on the use of technical equipment during the commander's decision process.;
- prepares and conducts calculations on technical support of front forces during the operation;
- insures timely supply of forces with armaments, military technical equipment, ammunition, and instruments in accordance with the table of organization and equipment and creates supply depots filled to approved norms at all echelons of the forces;
- provides for constant delivery of these items to the forces. In accordance with the situation, if necessary, he establishes supplies above the norms;
- organizes the technical support service and the security of weapons and technical equipment at a high level of combat readiness for fulfillment of operations. During combat he secures their high effectiveness in all conditions and situations.
- must constantly know the technical situation of technical means;
- organizes battlefield collection, evacuation, and repair of technical equipment and weapons that are damaged in the operation;
- organizes maintenance training on weapons, combat technical equipment, and other technical instruments and its tactical-technical characteristics, for crews, drivers, and others and raises their experience by training;
- organizes actions for security, defense, and protection of technical and maintenance bases, repair shops, and supply depots;
- organizes technical reconnaissance and observation of the battlefield and movement of units and sub-units of the evacuation, repair, and support troops with the aim of timely evacuation and repair of damaged combat equipment and weapons during the operation;
- organizes interaction of front technical support forces with rear service support forces during the preparation phase and during the operation;
- organizes and lays out points of technical support services and insures their effective operation, constant un-interrupted communications, and their movement during the operation;
- issues timely technical reports to higher headquarters on a daily basis;
- constantly inspects the fulfillment of issued orders and instructions by technical units and offers them assistance.



 
 

Duties and Responsibilities of the Deputy Commander for Rear Services (Chief of Rear Services)

The deputy commander for rear services is also the chief of rear services of the front and he directs the rear services during peacetime and wartime. He fulfills the following tasks.
- organizes, plans, conducts and inspects high combat readiness and mobilization preparedness of the formations, units, and institutions of the rear services for fulfilling support of the forces of the front for operations;
- organizes, plans, conducts, and inspects the special, operational, combat, and political training of the rear services staffs, formations, units, and installations;
- prepares recommendations with the aim of rear services support during the commander's making the decision;
- prepares and conducts calculations for accomplishment of rear service support for the offensive;
- organizes, makes the decision, and plans rear service support;
- prepares the operational directive on rear services and orders on rear service and insures their timely issue to the formations, units, and installations of the rear services and the staffs of subordinate formations;
- supports front forces with all types of material supplies and creates supply dumps of materials filled to the approved norms at all levels of preparation and combat. provides uninterrupted transport of supplies to the combat forces;
- prepares lines of communication for supply and evacuation and support of reliable movement of transport on these roads and organizes the commandant's service on the designated front roads;
- oversees collection, evacuation, in some conditions repair of damaged front means and weapons;
- renders assistance to wounded and sick, their evacuation from the battlefield, their medical treatment in the separate medical detachments, and their evacuation to the front hospital bases and provides antiepidemic and sanitary measures with the aim of limiting the spread of epidemics in the forces;
- organizes security, protection, and defense of front mobile bases and rocket technical bases, depots, and rear installations as well as the complete operational activity in the rear area of the front so that all will be in order;
- organizes veterinary support and quartering service and also exploitation of local supplies and captured materials;
- conducts maneuver and movement of front mobile material support brigade, supplies of materials, transport means, and formations, units, and installations of the front rear, engineer road units, units for evacuation and repair, medical units, and others in a timely manner in accordance with the movement (advance) of the front during the operation;
- organizes establishment of the rear control post and its high quality operation, movement, defense, security, and protection in the FUP area and during the operation;
- establishes reliable communications with formations, units, and installations of the rear service and rear control posts of the subordinate formations and units;
- insures timely preparation and issuing of periodic reports on rear service status and activities and data on the situation to higher headquarters;
- conducts constant inspection of the fulfillment of issued directives and instructions on rear services and renders required assistance to subordinate units and formations;



 
 

Duties of the Front Aviation Commander

The front aviation commander is the principle regulator of the combat action of front aviation troops, and controls them personally or through the staff. He is responsible for the following tasks:
- conducting training and insuring high combat readiness of the troops, special troops, and services, and for troop control of front aviation to accomplish likely future missions;
- insuring the full strength of front aviation in terms of flight crews, professional and technical personnel, and organic cadres of the large units, units, and service installations;
- insuring full strength of front aviation in terms of aircraft, helicopters, weapons, ammunition, technical equipment, material supplies, and timely repair of aircraft, helicopters, and technical equipment;
- raising the experience, skills, and combat capability of troops;
- personally or jointly with chief of staff and chief of the political directorate, clarifying the combat mission and issuing instructions to the chief of staff on preparing the troops, special troops, services, staff, and installations for combat, and giving the time of preparations for attack or combat actions;
- instructing the chief of staff and the chief of reconnaissance on preparing reconnaissance information required for making the decision and conduct of combat actions. The front aviation commander personally estimates the situation, or he may assemble the chiefs of staff directorates and related commanders in an appropriate place in order to listen to their detailed suggestions about the employment of troops, or he may listen to suggestions of the chief of staff of front aviation about the conclusions of the estimate of the situation and decision, and make his decision accordingly.

The commander personally, or through the chiefs of staff directorates or through written orders and maps, or through communications means, issues combat missions to subordinates. In addition he:
- coordinates the actions of front aviation troops with the actions of combined arms and tank armies of the front, and rocket and artillery troops, front and national defense troops, strategic aviation, transport aviation, and naval forces (in naval directions) in different phases of the operation;
- issues necessary instructions for all-around support measures for front aviation;
- supervises the deployment of front aviation on permanent and deployment airfields at appropriate times, issues instructions on technical and rear service support of air troops, and controls their execution;
- prepares rear service orders through the rear service staff and issues orders to aviation units and large units;
- takes actions on organization of repair and evacuation through related headquarters and organizations;
- personally, or through his staff and troop control organizations, controls preparation for the operation and accomplishment of assigned combat missions by troops, special troops, and services and extends necessary assistance to the troops;
- continuously evaluates the situation, predicts likely changes in the situation, makes timely situation oriented decisions, and issues combat missions to subordinates.

He also presents his suggestions to the front commander on the employment of front aviation. The front aviation commander must always be prepared to report to the front commander and commander-in-chief of air forces about the situation, status, and character of operation of own troops and about his decision. His other duties include the following:
- briefs his chief of staff on his concept and intention and informs him of instructions issued to the troops;
- issues instructions to his chief of staff on organization of front aviation command posts, of front aviation, and the command elements of front aviation established at the headquarters of coordinating operational formations and large units.

The front aviation commander is responsible for the high moral and political status of officers, subordinates, staff, and troops.


 
 

Duties of Chief of Staff of Front Aviation

The chief of staff is the first deputy commander and director of the staff.

Only the chief of staff has authority to issue instructions and orders in the name of the front aviation commander to operational units and combined units, special troops and services, and other related personnel directly under the commander of the front aviation.

The chief of staff reports to the commander about all instructions he issues. The chief of staff is responsible for the following:
- appropriate conduct of all missions and organized operations of the front aviation staff;
- briefing deputy commander, chiefs of combat arms, and special troops and services on received combat mission and issuing instructions on preparation of preliminary instructions, calendar plan, preparation of calculations for the commander's decision, and the time of their preparation.

The chief of staff is responsible to know constantly the combat situation and to predict likely changes in the situation, and to be prepared to report to the commander of front aviation and higher headquarters the following:
- the situation, status, and characteristics of the operation of friendly air force and enemy forces;
- deductions from the estimate of the situation and suggestions about the decision to be made by the front aviation commander;
- measures of organization of command and control, coordination and combat support measures of front aviation;
- the issuing of instructions on missions, aims, and elements of reconnaissance to the chief of front aviation reconnaissance;
- coordination of work amongst staff organizations all chiefs of combat arms, special troops and services, and other troop control organizations;
- direct supervision and guidance of the planning of the air operation, initial nuclear strike, and other combat actions conducted by front aviation. Chief of staff personally prepares and writes certain important documents, such as combat directions, and personally participates in preparation and organization of certain tasks and working out of some important documents, and supervises the conduct of such tasks. Based on instructions of the front aviation commander, organization of command posts within front aviation and control elements of front aviation established in the command posts of coordinating operational formations and large units including preparation of staff officers and establishment of continuous communications with them;
- signing or approving of all directives, orders, instructions, plans, and important combat documents which are prepared and issued at the aviation staff;
- organization in peacetime of training and high combat readiness of large units, units, and staffs in accordance with plans and instructions of front aviation commander.



 
 

Duties of the Chief of Operations of Front Aviation

The chief of operations is one of the important chiefs of staff directorates. He is obliged to conduct tasks pertaining to training, upgrading combat readiness of front aviation troops, and preparation of plans and important combat documents. The chief of operations carries out the following tasks:
- prepares initial instructions, calendar plan;
- sometimes the chief of operations personally writes the directives and operation order, and prepares other important combat documents;
- prepares calculations and data as well as necessary suggestions for the commander's decision;
- plans air operations, initial nuclear strike of front (graphic of initial nuclear strike of front aviation), and other combat documents with annexes, tables, graphs, plans of preparation and occupation of deployment air fields in the departure area and during the operation, plan of maskirovka, plan of protection of aviation troops from mass-destruction weapons, and plan of employment of air assault operations (in conjunction with other related organizations involved with planning of airborne operation);
- conveys combat missions to front aviation large units and units;
- organizes interaction and prepares instructions for tables of interaction with coordinating forces;
- organizes deployment of command posts and their relocation during the operation insuring continuous, reliable, stable communication, designates troop control signals and insures security of the front aviation command posts;
- prepares front aviation troops to accomplish combat missions and controls the accomplishment of assigned missions by subordinates and extends necessary assistance to them;
- prepares combat documents on troop control;
- collects, evaluates, and analyzes information about the situation during the preparation for and during the operation and presents suggestions about the decision to the commander;
- insures the timely submission of information about the situation and regular situation reports to higher headquarters, and information to subordinates headquarters, headquarters of interacting troops and adjacents about the changes in the locations.



 
 

Duties of the Chief of Reconnaissance of Front Aviation

The chief of reconnaissance is responsible for training, combat readiness, and reconnaissance operation of air reconnaissance units and their troop control in peacetime and war. The chief of reconnaissance carries out the following tasks:
- prepares calculations and necessary data for the front aviation commander's decision;
- collects, studies, analyzes, and makes deductions about reconnaissance information on the enemy and terrain;
- presents important information to the chief of staff, front aviation commander, higher and subordinate headquarters, and adjacents;
- designates targets and tasks and allocates reconnaissance troops and means for each reconnaissance target and task;
- prepares reconnaissance plan, annexes, and related documents and presents them for the signature of the chief of staff and approval of front aviation commander;
- assigns combat missions to subordinate reconnaissance units;
- coordinates reconnaissance action and interaction, and all types of reconnaissance in terms of mission, objectives, and time;
- prepares and employs air reconnaissance units and sub-units, and provides for their all-around support;
- controls execution of assigned instructions and orders, and practically assists with the organizing of reconnaissance units and sub-units, and other aviation units and sub-units that are conditionally and temporarily employed to carry out reconnaissance missions;
- organizes continuous communication with reconnaissance units, sub-units, and organizations, and exchanges reconnaissance information with headquarters of adjacents, higher echelons, subordinates, and coordinating forces;
- receives reconnaissance information from aircraft crews, analyzes it, makes deductions, and disseminates it to related headquarters and persons.



 
 

Duties of Front Air Army Deputy Commander for Fighter Aviation

The deputy commander for fighter aviation assists the air army commander in control of the air force, particularly the fighter aviation during the preparation and conduct of the operation. He has the following specific duties and responsibilities:
- conduct the control of the fighter aviation and its interaction with the front's air defense forces, based on the decision of the air army commander. To discharge this duty, at the time the air force is raised to the state of full combat readiness, the air army deputy commander, along with a number of air force officers and communications means, moves to the front's main command post and closely interacts with the chief of the front's air defense regarding the control and combat employment of the fighter aviation in the following areas:
--- the method of warning on the air situation;
--- the distribution of the areas of combat action of fighter aviation and units of air defense rocket and artillery;
--- specifying interaction of aircraft with air defense rocket and artillery in a single area;
--- specifying duty areas (combat air patrol) of fighter aviation in the air and interception lines of the aerial enemy and specifying which fighter aviation will be on duty status at the airfields as well as development (expansion) of their action during the enemy's air strikes.
--- deployment and method of relocation of positions, observation posts, guidance and target identification points at the locations of air defense rocket troops;
--- support of flight security of friendly aircraft in fire zones of air defense rocket and artillery;
--- specifying signals for interaction, mutual identification and target identification;


- organize and plan the combat employment of fighter aviation;
- assign and convey combat missions in a timely manner to subordinate troops;
- clarify combat missions in a timely manner and control the accomplishment of the assigned missions by subordinate large units in a timely fashion;
- during the conduct of the operation, constantly follow the situation and status of subordinate units and be ready to report to the commander when required;
- control fighter aviation action to repel the enemy's massive air strike and to cover the troops and rear service targets against air attacks;
- assign fighter escort to support nuclear armed aircraft and other bombers and fighter-bomber aircraft during the conduct of their missions in the air operation, while they are destroying and suppressing enemy reserves and during other important missions in the operation;
- provide fighter cover to support of airborne and seaborne assault forces;
- assign and control fighter aviation for specified air reconnaissance;
- specify sectors of action for fighter aviation divisions;
- when required, control the operation of the air army's combat control centers, guidance and target identification points, combat control groups, and radio navigation points.



 
 

III. ACTIONS OF FRONT STAFF AND TROOP CONTROL ORGANS DURING ORGANIZATION FOR OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS


 
 

Aim of the Offensive Operation and Missions of the Front(1)

In future wars the strategic missions in TVDs will be resolved, as in the past, by combined efforts of operational formations, formations of the different services of the armed forces, and various arms in the context of strategic operations. They will be conducted with nuclear weapons, or by the employment of conventional means only. At the same time, war also may be initiated with the use of only conventional weapons and develop subsequently into a nuclear confrontation.

Normally, several fronts will participate in strategic missions. Offensive operations of fronts will constitute the main component of the strategic operation.

The role of the front, i.e. the extent of its contribution to the destruction of the enemy's armed forces in the strategic operation in the TVD, depends on the following:
- aim and combat mission of the front in the offensive operation;
- composition of the front;
- scope of the operation (depth, width, duration, speed of advance);
- relationship of the front's action to the aim and mission of the operation.

Moreover, the impact of the front's offensive operation on enemy actions, and the front's actions to destroy groupings of enemy forces (main groupings or other groupings, principal enemy forces or allies in the TVD, etc.), along with the likely outcome of the front operation in terms of aim, time, and space, are factors which influence the role of the front in the strategic operation.

In strategic operations conducted with nuclear weapons the front must destroy the enemy's main forces. It should completely destroy surviving groupings of the enemy and must destroy enemy groupings in the depths of the TVD that have not been hit by strategic nuclear strikes.

In modern times a strategic operation is normally conducted with nuclear weapons. In strategic operations conducted with the use of only conventional means the front plays an important role in the destruction of enemy armed forces in the TVD.

In operations conducted with conventional means the front is required to destroy all enemy forces to the entire depth of its operational missions.

The front plays a very important role in actions leading to the accomplishment of the mission, such as individual operations to seize important objectives and strategic regions or the entire territory of the enemy. The front, as a large operational formation, has all types of combat and combat support arms in its composition, and sometimes it has units and formations of other services (types) of armed forces. Therefore, the front possesses all required forces and means for the conduct of the aforementioned actions.

The place of the front in offensive operations in the TVD depends on its location in the strategic formation (deployment) of the forces. The front can conduct operations in the context of first or second offensive operations (in first or second strategic echelons in the TVD).

The offensive operation of the first-echelon front has a direct and sometimes decisive effect on the success of the strategic operation. The accomplishment of the operations of first-echelon fronts leads to the destruction of the enemy's main strategic groupings in the TVD, including the following:
- nuclear rockets;
- tactical aircraft:
- supreme command;
- reserves;
- air defense aviation;
- communication zones.

When the front operates in the first-echelon, depending on the concept of the strategic operation, it can conduct the offensive operation on the direction of the main attack or on axes in the center or on the flanks of the strategic groupings of forces in the TVD.

The second operational echelon normally moves to the TVD from the interior of the country. The front in this echelon is normally committed in the direction of the main attack to develop the success of the strategic operation or to accomplish the strategic operation in a short time.

The front offensive operation can be conducted in various TVDs and under different conditions (in different situations), such as the following:
- naval directions, in coordination with naval forces;
- mountainous areas;
- mountainous-jungle areas;
- deserts;
- northern (arctic) areas.

The conduct of the offensive operation will have its own particular characteristics depending on the characteristics of the situation in each TVD. In every situation the front is assigned the aim of the operation and mission. The aim and mission may vary depending on the factors involved. The following factors primarily (mostly) affect the aim of the operation and missions of the front:
- political aim (objective) of the war;
- concept of strategic operations in the TVD;
- composition of the front;
- enemy groupings of forces and the nature (character) of his likely action.

The political aim of the war emerges directly from the state's politics (policy). War is the continuation of politics by other means, particularly by forceful means. State politics determines not only the general aim of the war, but also directly influences the process of determining the aim and concept of strategic operations, as well as the aim and missions of the front operation.

During the process of determining the aim and mission of front offensive operations the following elements are closely examined and assessed:
- deployment of enemy forces in the TVD;
- foreign and domestic policy of each enemy nation and enemy allies located in the area of the front's offensive operation;
- differences among enemy nations, such as economic, territorial, and other differences and disputes.

The content of the aim of the front operation is also affected by the international duty and commitments and liberating missions of the Soviet armed forces.

The concept of the strategic operation directly affects the aim of the front strategic operation. In the aim of the operation the front considers the following:
- what enemy groupings must be destroyed, in what sequence, and what form;
- what enemy territory must be seized, and when.

The composition, grouping, and degree of readiness of the enemy forces in different TVDs, and on each direction, might be different. For instance, in the Western TVD the main groupings of NATO armed forces include the following:
- ground forces with nuclear weapons;
- tactical aircraft;
- many naval formations.

All of these forces are prepared, equipped, and trained to conduct decisive actions. They are prepared for maneuverability during combat operations under various conditions, with or without the use of nuclear weapons. The destruction of enemy allied forces requires specific superiority of forces and means, as well as extremely wise and effective artfulness from the Warsaw Bloc forces. It must be noted that the potential enemy in this theater has enormous capacity and capability for mobilization. Moreover, the enemy can reinforce its forces in this theater by maneuvering forces from other strategic directions and moving forces from other continents. The enemy posture in other TVDs will be different in terms of structure, organization, technical equipment, degree of combat-readiness, and character of actions. The characteristics of the enemy's composition in the theater and in the directions of the attack definitely affect the aim of the operation and the nature of the missions of the front.

Combat capability and field (combat) training of the front's troops, their operational formation (deployment), morale of the personnel, material supply level, physical and geographic characteristics of the TVD, significance and dimensions of the theater, and other factors will greatly influence the aim of the operation and the content of the mission.


Aim of the Front Offensive Operation

Some of the aims of the front offensive operation are as follows:
- destruction of enemy groupings of rocket-nuclear means;
- destruction of ground and air forces;
- foiling enemy mobilization actions;
- seizure of important territorial areas;
- ousting of certain enemy ally nations from the war.

The aim of the offensive operation must be the same for operations with or without the use of nuclear weapons. The aim of the offensive operation with the use of nuclear weapons is achieved by the following:
- nuclear strikes of rocket troops and front aviation, combined with the strikes of conventional weapons, on important targets in the groupings of enemy nuclear means, ground and air forces, and other enemy targets;
- timely exploitation by the front's forces of the results (impacts) of the strikes of strategic nuclear forces, as well as quick and continuous attacks of front forces.

The aim of the front offensive operation with the use of conventional weapons only is achieved through employing all firepower means, such as artillery and air forces, to destroy successively enemy groupings, along with decisive attacks by the front's operational formations and formations, as well as through constantly expanding strikes against the enemy and developing attacks in assigned directions.
To achieve the specific aims of the offensive operation, the front is assigned a mission during the initial nuclear strike, an immediate mission, and a subsequent mission.


Contents of the Mission During the Initial Nuclear Strike

It includes the destruction of the following:
- enemy operational-tactical means;
- enemy's main grouping;
- air force and air defense troops;
- important command posts;
- rear service (logistics) installations (targets).

The Supreme High Command may instruct the front on the depth of the front's initial nuclear strike and specify the boundary between strategic nuclear strikes and front nuclear strikes.


Content of the Immediate Mission of the Front

The contents of the immediate mission of the front are the following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons;
- destruction of his tactical air force;
- seizure of areas and vital targets.

These steps will destroy the operational stability of enemy defenses and the bases of his aviation forces. This will create favorable conditions for the front rapidly to develop the attack to the depth of the TVD. The depth of the front's immediate mission can be 250-350 km or more.


Contents of Long-range Missions of the Front

The contents of the long-range mission of the front are the following:
- destruction of newly-detected enemy nuclear weapons;
- destruction of enemy deep reserves;
- seizure of objectives and areas in the depth of enemy territory, the occupation of which will facilitate the achievement of the aims of the operation. The depth of the long-range mission depends on the overall depth of the operation and can be 350-500 km.

Depending on the situation and the content of the immediate and long-range missions of the front, the following seizures can be made:
- political and administrative centers;
- national capitals;
- vital industrial areas;
- with the cooperation of other fronts, knock-out individual enemy allies in the TVD.

During coastal operations the contents of front missions will include the following:
- destroying coastal groupings of enemy forces;
- seizing peninsulas;
- seizing straits;
- seizing naval ports (bases);
- seizing other important targets on the coast;
- establishing defenses on occupied coasts as forces move deeper into enemy territory.

During the conduct of offensive operations in mountainous areas, particular importance is given to destroying individual groupings of enemy forces deployed in areas leading to road junctions (centers of road communications), mountain passes, defiles, and other vital targets. Seizure of these areas will provide friendly forces with vital outlets and openings to emerge into wide valleys, plains, and vast open areas.


Scope of the Operation

Principal indices of the dimensions of offensive operations are the following:
- depth of the operation;
- width of the operation;
- speed of the attack;
- duration of the operation.

The front offensive operation will have the following dimensions depending on the military and political aims of the strategic operation, availability of forces and means of the front, groupings of enemy forces, conditions in the TVD, and other factors:
- depth: 600-800 km or more;
- average speed of attack: 40-60 km per day;
- during attacks against enemy prepared defenses: 25-30 km per day, increasing to 60-70 km per day during development of the attack;
- duration of the attack: 12-15 days;
- width of front of the area of attack: 300-400 km.



 
 

Preparation of the Front Offensive Operation


Conditions and Contents of the Preparation for Offensive Operation

Preparation of the front's offensive operation is a collection of measures taken by the commander, staff, chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services, political organs, and rear service troops and organs on organization, planning, and all-around support of the operation. The main, important measures for preparation of the front offensive operation are as follows:
- making the decision and planning the operation;
- conveying missions to the troops and organizing interaction;
- preparing attack staging areas (ishodnie rayoni), control points, and signal communications systems;
- procuring and stockpiling material supplies;
- organizing and conducting political affairs;
- organizing all types of supporting measures and troop control for the operation;
- preparing troops for combat action under whatever different conditions may prevail at the outbreak of war;
- maintaining constant high combat-readiness of troops for the conduct of assigned missions.

The initial data constituting the basis for preparation of the offensive operation are the following:
- aim of the operation and missions of the front specified in the directive of the general staff;
- actual (concrete) composition of troops and means;
- assessment and evaluation of all information about the situation.

The front prepares its initial offensive operation to be initiated at the outset of the war in advance during peacetime. The front conducts preparation of subsequent operations during the war, in the course of accomplishing missions in the preceding operation. All measures connected with the preparation of the offensive operation must be carried out with strict observance of secrecy and safeguarding secrets of the concept of the operation.



Familiarization of the Chief of Staff and Other Chiefs with the Operational Directive and Preparation of Data for the Commander's Decision-making:

The commander-in-chief or chief of staff personally (or in accordance with their instructions the chief of the operations directorate) familiarizes the chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services about only those points in the received combat mission which concern them. They do this in order for the headquarters personnel to perform in the best manner their functions in obtaining information, preparing calculations, making suggestions on the combat employment of the combat arms, special troops, and services and preparing and issuing initial instructions to these forces. They also issue instructions on the work and actions to be performed in support of the decision-making process and to fulfill the combat mission. They specify what information will be prepared by which individuals. The chief of staff with the chief of the operations directorate and chief of reconnaissance indicates what data on the enemy and friendly forces they already have and what new information is required and at what time. They assign who must obtain the information, (for instance the chief of reconnaissance, chief of operations directorate, commander of air army, chiefs of combat arms and special troops).

Reliable information is passed to the information center of the operations directorate and to the computer center and is prepared for the commander's decision-making and then reported to him. The chief of staff issues instructions scheduling the activities of the computer center and time for its use by the various chiefs of combat arms and special troops. Some information on the troops and adjacents is received from the information center of the operations directorate. Other information is obtained by means of personal conversation and contact with the sources and also various officers are sent directly to the locations to obtain information. The information on own forces must include the following:
- situation, composition, grouping, and missions of front forces;
- quantity on hand and expected resupply of nuclear bombs, warheads and conventional rockets, their level of combat readiness, and movement;
- quantity on hand of supplies in the forces and their manning level, quantity and status of combat equipment;
- situation of airfields;
- composition and situation of rear services, supplies for forces, with material supplies, quantity of wounded and sick;
- character of actions of adjacents and conditions of interaction with them;

Collection and analysis of information and preparation of the results of the estimate of the enemy is conducted by the chief of reconnaissance in the following order:
- data on the situation, character of actions, combat composition, grouping of forces and means, and most of all quantity and location of nuclear chemical and bacteriological means;
- possible concept of action, combat capabilities, and morale- political status of forces, weak and strong points of the enemy;
- designation of national composition, tribes, religious groups, political parties, and political movements in the population and the use which may be made of possible internal contradictions, ideological, national, religious, class, and other conflicts.

The chief of reconnaissance accomplishes the following:
- issues orders on preparation of reconnaissance information from various sources;
- designates missions for reconnaissance forces and the time to receive information;
- sends requests to the higher command on reconnaissance information needed by the front;

The information he collects on the conditions for conducting the operation is analyzed by the operations directorate, reconnaissance directorate, staffs (directorates and departments) combat arms, special troops, and services, and rear service staff. Data that is received is marked on the working map and written into journals and compared with old information. They assess its importance, urgency, timeliness, and reliability and what sources it was received from. Data that is reliable is analyzed and reported to the commander and chief of staff and given to the information center in the operations directorate. During preparation of information for report to the commander, they make various operational calculations. During decision-making they make the following calculations:
- calculation of the time available for preparation of the operation;
- calculation of possible results of the use of weapons and means of the higher command;
- calculation of enemy possible combat capabilities;
- calculation of combat capabilities of own forces;
- designation of the quantitative and qualitative correlation of forces of the sides across the entire front and on each axis to the depth of each mission and for each phase of the operation, for the commitment into engagement of the second echelon, during the repulse of enemy counterattack, for forcing water obstacles, and other phases.
- determination of effectiveness of the initial nuclear strike, massive strikes of air forces, also repulsing of enemy massive air and space forces;
- calculation and determination of combat capabilities of forces on each axis, during deployment, movement, and other actions;



Clarification of the Mission

Clarification of the mission includes an understanding of the following:
- proper and accurate understanding of the aim and missions of the front offensive operation;
- role and place of the front in the strategic operation in the TVD;
- missions of adjacent fronts, and operational formations, and formations of other services of the armed forces and conditions of interaction with them.



 
 

Issuing Initial Instructions to the Operational Formations and Front Forces and Preparing the Forces for the Operation:

After clarifying the mission and calculating the time available, the front commander designates the time and what initial instructions must be sent to which forces. The aim of the initial instructions is to insure the timely preparation of front forces and control the staffs and troop control organs in their coming activities in order that they will have enough time for preparation for the operation. In some situations, when they have a limited amount of time for preparation, the front commander after preparation of the concept of the decision for the operation, by means of the staff, issues initial instructions to inform the subordinate staffs and forces about the coming operation. He does this to start the preparation for the operation and to support their preparedness to complete the coming operation's mission. In the initial instructions he briefly discusses the concept of the operation, missions for subordinates, occupation of FUP areas, immediate mission, long-range mission, axis for main attack, boundaries, and likely time for start of the operation. In this manner the subordinates staffs and forces quickly begin their preparation for the operation. On the basis of the commander's instructions the chief of staff issues instructions to the chief of operations directorate, chiefs of staffs and combat arms, special troops and services in order for them to be prepared and to issue the required initial instructions to the operational formations, combat forces, special troops, and services. To prepare the forces for the operation the chief of the operations directorate and chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services prepare initial instructions and organize actions of their staffs on preparing information for the commander's decision-making. The operations directorate prepares the calendar plan. (See Chapter Five for sample calendar plan.) The calendar plan as a rule is prepared on graph or plain paper. The plan shows the measures for preparing the operation, responsible people for each measure, time for start and ending, time for the commander to sign and approve each plan and annex. The following events and activities are shown:
- assessment of the situation;
- making the decision;
- terrain reconnaissance by commander ( if done);
- issuing orders to subordinates;
- planning the operation:
--- plan of operation;
- --annex for initial nuclear strike;
- --annex for conduct of airborne desants;
- --annex for preparation and occupying FUP areas;
- --annex for operational maskirovka;
- --annex for protection against enemy mass-destruction weapons;
- --annex for hydro-meteorological support;
- --annex for topo-geodetic support;
- --annex for radio-electronic combat;
- --annex for troop control;
- --annex for operation of computer center;
- --annex for signal plan;
- --reconnaissance plan;
- --plan of employment of rocket troops and artillery;
- --plan for employment of air army;
- --plan for employment of PVO forces;
- --plan for employment of engineer forces;
- --plan for employment of chemical forces;
- --plan for rear services;
- --plan for political work;
- organization of interaction;
- preparation and occupation of FUP areas;
- preparation and occupation of command points;
- preparation of communication system;
- collection and creation of material supply dumps;
- preparation of forces for combat actions;
- monitoring and rendering assistance

The chief of staff establishes duties, controls the staff and chiefs of arms and services and sets the time for fulfilling missions in accordance with this plan.



 
 

Actions of the Chief of Staff and Chiefs of Combat Arms, Special Troops, and Services for Preparing Information, Calculations, and Suggestions for the Commanders Decision-Making:

On the basis of the chief of staff's instructions on preparation of data, calculations, and suggestions the chiefs of staffs, combat arms, special troops, and services organize activities of their subordinate staffs and conduct the following measures.

The operations directorate prepares a graphic table of the daily activities of the staffs and troop control organs which shows the following information: what personnel, what time they fulfill their tasks, time for eating, time for rest, and time for changing the work force. (See Chapter Five for a sample of this table.) Each directorate also prepares a graphic of the daily activities of their own officers, time for work and rest, time for eating and time for change over of duty.

In addition each directorate of the staff, combat arms, special troops, and services designates work groups (groups for planning, group preparation of directives, orders, and instructions, group for collection and working out of data, and others). The directorates also designate duties for each officer and prepare a graphic of their activities. The practical tasks of the troop control organs must be designated to take maximum advantage of everyone's specialization and expertise. Observing these rules creates the best conditions for effective work and raises the quality of work.

The chiefs prepare calculations and suggestions for the commander' decision-making and combat employment of their forces on the basis of the distribution of work between groups and staffs. The chiefs personally prepare the suggestions for the decision- making in detail in accordance with the sample suggestions contained in Chapter Five.



 
 

Suggestions of Chief of Reconnaissance During Estimate of the Situation

The composition grouping and operational situation of the enemy forces generally along the front area and in front of adjacents. The assessment of enemy ground forces:
- how many divisions to include infantry, armored and airborne division and how many of each;
- how many tanks, artillery, mortars, antitank-guns antitank guided rockets and SAM's are there in these divisions;
- how many divisions deployed on the first operational echelon, to include the total number of tanks, guns and mortars antitank guns, antitank guided rockets and SAM's;
- how many divisions in 2nd echelons and reserves to include number of same weapons etc;
- where is the likely axis of enemy main attack, how many divisions employed there and what is total number of tanks etc;
- the secondary attacks are expected in what directions and how many divisions will be employed in each direction. What will be the total number of weapons such as tanks and antitank guns, ATGM, SAM's, etc.

The assessment of enemy nuclear weapons:
- what will be the total number of nuclear rounds, rockets, and bombs the enemy is expected to use in his initial nuclear strike;
- location of most important systems of nuclear delivery means such as rockets, aircraft and nuclear depots;

The assessment of enemy air force:
- the number and of types of enemy aircraft in the front operational area including the aircraft with nuclear capability;
- airfield (location and characteristics);
- in what directions the enemy will attempt to penetrate through air defense systems of friendly troops;
- likely direction of main attack and distribution of enemy aircraft along the different directions;
- forms of operations of enemy air forces to include the air operation with number of aircraft to be participating in each. (They are thinking about massive air strikes and strategic air strikes.);
- the troop control and guidance system for aircraft to targets and in assigned locations.

The assessments of enemy air defense:
- what rocket and air defense artillery systems are included in enemy forces to include fighter aircraft and their number;
- strong and weak directions and areas in enemy air defenses;
- likely reenforcement of air defense from other areas.

The assessments of enemy logistic echelons:
- location of enemy logistic echelon, depots, supplies, routes airports, supply bases and ports;
- availability and volume of supplies to enemy logistic echelons;
- evaluation of enemy supply system.

General deductions from estimate of enemy situation and suggestions:
- density of enemy forces along the entire front and entire depth and on each axis of operations (including air and air defense);
- concept and character of enemy likely actions;
- direction of main attack and other attacks and how many divisions will be operating on each;
- operational formations;
- time of initiation of attack by enemy;
- enemy air support situation;
- enemy's strength, combat experience, training and morale;
- the nature and character of engineer fortifications, obstacles and terrain conditions in theater of military operations;
- enemy strong and weak points;
- most dangerous action by enemy;
- in case enemy initiates nuclear war -how many nuclear rounds can it use - by what units and what means the nuclear weapons can be delivered - in what depth nuclear weapons can be used by enemy;
- how many strikes can be launched to include the percentage of total nuclear rounds in each strike and the time gap between strikes;
- most favorable targets for front initial nuclear strike;
- EEI;
- detection of enemy nuclear and chemical means;
- enemy ground force groupings and command posts;
- enemy airfields, areas of deployment of air defense means, guidance centers and radars;
- mobilization centers and the formation of operational reserves;
- naval forces and their bases;
- defensive lines and other important enemy targets.



 
 

Suggestions of Chief of Operations During Estimate of Friendly Forces

The chief of operations reports on the composition, grouping, and operational situation of front troops. The assessment of friendly forces is as follows:
- level of material supply of operational formations and large units;
- level of personnel strength of operational formations and large units - level of combat equipment strength of the troops, the situation and status of weapons and equipment;
- availability and supply situation of ammunition, rockets, nuclear rounds and bombs with respect to their level of combat readiness and their yields during the course of the operation;
- availability and supply situation of chemical rounds, bombs, and rockets during the operation;
- situation and status of rear service echelons and the presence of sick and wounded in the units;
- morale and combat experience of troops;
- capabilities of troops in combat actions with and without nuclear weapons.

Suggestions:
- suggestion on establishment of striking groupings and operational formation of the front;
- the number of troops in each direction;
- direction of main and support attacks;
- missions of operational formations;
- missions, targets, and method of employment of nuclear weapons;
- mission of rocket troops, artillery, air army, large airborne units, naval units etc.;
- air defense and reserve missions and composition;
- distribution of troops and means among the operational formations and large units;
- correlation of troops and means along the entire front and on each direction in terms of infantry division, tank division, tanks, guns and mortars, anti-tank guns, ATGM, SAM, helicopters and aircraft;
- method of interaction and troop control.

 
 

The Suggestions of the Chief of Staff During the Estimate of the Situation and Presentation of Proposed Decisions to the Commander

The deductions from assessment of the enemy are as follows:
- situation, status, and character of operational action of enemy forces;
- strength of enemy troops in terms of nuclear weapons, supplies, equipment and personnel;
- casualties and losses of enemy troops;
- morale and level of combat capability of enemy troops;
- concept and character of enemy operations;
- direction of main and supporting attacks;
- operational formation;
- time of initiation of attack.

The deduction from assessments of friendly forces is as follows:
- situation, status, and character of operational actions of friendly troops;
- level of strength of friendly forces in terms of nuclear weapons materials, weapons, and equipment;
- assessment of combat capabilities of friendly forces;
- the best form of establishment of grouping of offensive operation given the actual situation and operational status of troops.

The suggested decision for the front commander is as follows:
- a concept of operation;
- form and method of destruction of enemy;
- direction of main and other attack;
- front operational formations in the attack;
- character of maneuver.

The suggested missions of first and second-echelon armies, artillery and rocket forces, air force, air defense units, air and sea assault units, and other elements of front operational formations are as follows:
- suggestions on coordination;
- suggestion on support of combat operation;
- suggestion on location of command post and signal communication and other issues.

 
 

Suggestions of Chiefs of Combat Arms, Special Troops, and Services During Estimate of Situation and Making of Decision by the Commander

Some of these suggestions are the following:
- situation and status and character of enemy operations in specialty of each chief and also composition, grouping, concept, and likely nature of action of enemy forces in their specialty;
- situation, status, and character of operation of respective friendly troops;
- level of strength of related troops in terms of supplies, personnel, weapons and equipment availability of nuclear and chemical rockets, rounds, bombs, and (when relevant);
- capabilities of related troops during use of nuclear weapons or during the conventional operation with related calculations;
- preparing the required calculations for commander`s decision;
- instructions received from relevant directorate of higher echelon.

Suggestions:
- best form of employment of relevant combat arms, special troops, and services and their proposed missions;
- suggestions on interaction, combat support, and troop control of related forces.



 
 

Estimate of Rear Service Situation and Rear Service Decision Made by Chief of Rear Service

The situation and status of rear service installation and services are as follows:
- situation, status, character of operation, and location of rear service large units, units, and installations in front;
- the situation, status, and capacity of supply motor routes, railroads, seaports, airfields, and transportation routes;
- availability and level of material, medical, technical, and supplies in the front rear service installations and in the operational formations and large units organic to the front;
- situation, and status of mobile rocket technical bases and rocket fuel depots;
- number of sick and wounded in front mobile hospital bases and separate medical detachments of armies and in divisional medical battalions, along with the capacity and status of front mobile hospitals and medical transport means;
- status and capability of repair and evacuation units of the front and number of heavily and medium damaged vehicles in these troop units;
- volume of ammunition expenditure and technical, medical, and other supply requirements during the preparation period and in the course of the operation. How many days of supply of ammunition, material, technical equipment, and medical supplies should be supplied by the end of the operation;
- preparation of calculations for the commander to make the decision and to issue instructions on rear services. Also calculations for front chief of rear service to make his decision;
- measures to be taken in order to organize rear service support (rear service decision);
- establishment of operational formation of rear service echelon (deployment of elements and organs of first and second-echelon of rear services and their relocation during the course of the operation.);
- measures on medical support during the operation. Evacuation and treatment of seriously wounded and sick to main front hospitals;
- measures on collection, repair and evacuation of damaged vehicles;
- supply of rockets and deployment of mobile technical bases of rockets and of rocket fuel depots;
- demarkation of the armies' rear service areas;
- lateral and axis motor routes of the front and their location and construction and organization of commandant and traffic control service along the entire system of supply routes;
- directions of extension of railroads to improve the supply system and what troops are to be employed on this;
- which seaports and air means are allocated to be used in the supply of armies;
- in what directions the main pipelines are going to be extended;
- the main principles of supply to insure un-disrupted supply of the troops;
- the organization of protection, defense and security of rear service installations and the troops and means to be employed for this purpose;
- organization of troop control.



 
 

Calculations

In the process of preparing the information to be reported to the commander, a wide range of operational and other calculations need to be conducted. During the decision-making process the following calculations may be required:
- calculation of time for the preparation of the operation;
- determination of the expected consequences of the use of nuclear weapons of the higher echelon;
- calculation of the combat capabilities of the enemy and friendly forces;
- determination of the quantitative and qualitative correlation of troops and means of the opposing forces;
- determination of the effectiveness coefficients of the initial nuclear strike, the air force massive strike and also of repulsion of the enemy's massive air and space attacks;
- calculation of the friendly troops' combat capability in terms of different axes, during their deployment, advance, etc.

The chief of staff fully estimates the situation and reports to the commander on his deductions from the estimate of the situation and his suggestions on a proposed decision for the operation. The chief of staff's report is based on the commander's clarification of the mission and estimate of the situation.



 
 

Estimate of the Situation

The estimate of the situation is the deep study and analysis of the factors and conditions which effect the fulfillment of the mission and achieving the aim of the operation. The front commander conducts the estimate of the situation with the assistance of the staff and chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services during the initial decision making process and as part of troop control during the operation. The commander's and staff's activities and methods during the estimate of the situation may vary in accordance with the content of the decision. There are several alternatives.

The front commander, after clarification of the mission, makes the estimate of the situation and listens individually to the reports of the chiefs of reconnaissance, chief of operations directorate, chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services with the chief of staff and chief of political directorate. Then after he makes up his mind and concept in discussion with the members of the military council and chief of staff, the commander precisely designates his concept of the operation and combat missions for subordinates and combat arms. He issues his decision, informing a few individuals only of the matters that concern them. The decision is issued to subordinate formations in brief operational instructions. This method by the front commander requires a relatively brief time spent in the estimate of the situation and making the decision. It also supports secrecy of the concept of the operation.

There is another method of activities for the commander and staff in which the commander, after receipt and clarification of the mission, studies it with the chief of staff and chief of political directorate and estimates the situation with the full participation of all the chiefs of staffs, chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services. The front commander announces the conclusions he has reached in the estimate of the situation and suggestions of the chiefs on employment of the combat arms and special troops. He then listens to the suggestions of the chief of staff on making the decision. After listening to the subordinates, the front commander announces his decision openly during the meeting. This method of action by the front commander and staff requires additional measures on securing secrecy on the concept of the operation and decision.

In some situations the front commander must conduct a reconnaissance on the terrain with the aim of making more exact on the ground various issues in the decision.

When the front commander knows the situation in the front zone of action well, he may make his decision without listening to the reports and information of the chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services. He can make his decision with the cooperation of the chief of staff, chief of political directorate, and chiefs of operations and reconnaissance. In principle the method for making the decision depends on the situation, experience of the commander, and also the coordinated actions of the staff and troop control organs. During the estimate of the situation the following are clarified:
- enemy forces;
- own forces;
- adjacents;
- terrain;
- radioactive, chemical and bacteriological situation;
- national and class, composition of the population in the area;
- condition and economic links of the population with the Soviet force;
- economic conditions in the theater;
- hydrological conditions, weather, time of year and daylight.

The front commander, during his analysis, evaluates each of the above mentioned points and what level they will effect the mission of the operation and their possibilities for using own forces in accordance with the conditions. The front commander, during his estimate of the enemy, considers the following:
- enemy possibilities for use of nuclear and conventional weapons;
- composition, situation, status, character of actions, grouping of forces, nuclear, ground, air and naval forces;
- determines possible concept of operation and possible start of his operations, strong and weak points;
- determines main enemy grouping and possibilities for its destruction;
- best axis for main and other strikes in accordance with enemy strong and weak points;
- determines targets for first nuclear strike and what is necessary to achieve superiority in forces and means on the main axis;
- enemy capabilities for reenforcing his groups during the operation;
- combat capabilities, morale political status, combat readiness, and combat experience;
- enemy manning level, insufficiencies and losses in personnel, weapons, and supplies;
- quantity of motor-rifle and tank divisions, quantity of tactical and operational nuclear weapons, nuclear operational and tactical launchers, atomic artillery, quantity of tanks, artillery and mortars, air defense rockets, combat aircraft, (bombers, fighter-bombers, and fighters), combat and transport helicopters across the entire front and on each axis, for each main and other axis, in the second echelon and others.

In his assessment of own forces he determines the following:
- operational situation, combat composition, grouping, and missions of front forces;
- support for front forces with material means;
- manning of formations and large units;
- quantity of weapons and combat equipment in formations and status of equipment;
- quantity and resupplies of nuclear supplies, rockets, bombs in accordance with the level of combat readiness and their capacity during the preparation for the operation and during its course;
- quantity and resupply of chemical weapons, bombs, rockets during the preparation and course of the operation.
- morale political status, combat readiness, and combat experience of own forces;
- capabilities of own forces during use of nuclear and conventional weapons;
- condition of air fields;
- situation and condition of rear services and support of rear service bases with supplies, and number of wounded and sick in hospitals;
- other issues;

As a result of the estimate of own forces the commander determines the following:
- operational formation of the front, strike grouping, designation of main and other axes;
- quantity of forces and means on each axis;
- regrouping ;
- issuing missions to the operational formations;
- distribution of forces and means between formations and elements of the combat formation.

During the estimate of adjacents he determines the following:
- grouping, operational situation, character of actions;
- operational missions;
- axis of main attack;
- sequence of interaction during break through enemy defense and encirclement of main grouping and during fulfillment of various main missions;
- second echelon, at what line it will be committed into the engagement, its missions and sequence for interaction;
- in addition in what regions to conduct airborne and naval desant operations, their missions, and sequence for interaction;

During estimate of socio-political conditions of the population in the front sector, he determines the following:
- what nations, and political parties are active in the enemy area;
- communications of Soviet forces and regime with the population and
- quantity of Communist Party that supports the Soviet Union, its strength and capabilities and its role in the social system;
- what countries are located in the TVD, historical, border, religions, and other contradictions between them; quantity of Communist Party and other political parties; by means of political, ideological, propaganda, economic, and other methods how to cut their unity and union and strike separate states by Communist and other parties and push them out of the war.
- conduct propaganda and create contradictions between nations, tribes, parties, and create class, religious, and ethnic struggle between these and cut the national unity. or weaken them. and create convulsions in the interest of the aim of the war.
- open new internal front with the Communist Parties during the operation and possibility of their participation and strengthening them by airborne desant operations.
- use of tourism inside allied countries and how to destroy economic, military, social, and other targets and create disorder ;

During assessment of economic situation in the front area he determines the following:
- determine economic financial, industrial, agricultural, and commercial capabilities of enemy;
- possibilities for use of economic, financial, industrial, agricultural, commercial, and other sources during the operation in the interests of material support for the front;
- determine dangerous centers and locations in the enemy economy such as fuel depots, energy sources, electric stations, pipelines, gas lines, supplies;
- possibilities for destruction and weakening of economic,industrial, energy, electrical, pipeline, and other supplies ;
- lines of transportation and communication system, trade, especially transportation of oil and other strategic materials and its destruction ;
- determination of railroad centers, international airports, important ports, hydro-technical centers, important bridges, canals, tunnels, centers of automobile roads, railroad stations, and others. The possibilities for their destruction;

Assessment of terrain, radiological, chemical, and bacteriological situation, hydro-meteorological, climatic, time of year and length of day also are assessed by the front commander



 
 

Making the Decision

The decision of the front commander for the offensive operation constitutes the basis for all measures related to the preparation and conduct of the operation. The front commander must concentrate all of his talent, ability, and art to make a decision that will be rational in all aspects. This is achieved only through a clear understanding of the concept of the superior commander, a close and accurate study of the aims and missions of the front's operation, all-around assessment and evaluation of the situation, and conducting operational forecasting.

The front commander as a result of his deep assessment of the situation makes a decision for the offensive operation in which he determines he following:
- concept of the operation:
- designation of main enemy grouping, means for its destruction with nuclear or conventional weapons, axis for main and other strikes, means for maneuver, operational formation;
- missions, targets, and sequence for employment of nuclear weapons (if used);
- missions for combined arm and tank armies of first echelon;
- missions for rocket forces and artillery, air army, airborne and naval landings;
- missions for second-echelon and various reserves;
- missions for PVO forces;
- interaction;
- possible combat support;
- organization of troop control.



 
 

Concept of the Operation

The basic elements of the concept of the operation are the following:
- the main groupings of enemy forces and the forms of their destruction;
- direction of the main attack;
- direction of other supporting attacks;
- operational formation of the forces (operational deployment for the operation).

In modern times all of these issues must be determined in close consideration of achieving the following missions:
- repulse of possible enemy invasion;
- destruction of confronting enemy forces;
- achievement of the aim of the operation with or without the use of nuclear weapons.

Selecting of the direction of the main attack and other attack directions (supporting attacks) along with determining the number of attacks and the method of concentration of effort of the troops are some of the most crucial issues addressed in formulating the concept of the operation. The capability of the front to establish decisive superiority over enemy forces and means on the specified directions of the attack determines the number of attacks (strikes, blows) in front offensive operations. Given the composition and combat capability of the front in contemporary times, it can often launch attacks on two directions (axes) during the initial offensive operation. Sometimes it can attack on three directions. One of these directions will be the direction of the main attack. The main effort is concentrated on destroying enemy groupings of forces and seizing vital enemy areas in the direction of the main attack. The direction of the main attack is normally specified to the depth of the immediate mission and, sometimes, to the entire depth of the operation.

Directions of other attacks (supporting attacks) are determined in support of the main attack and destruction of the main enemy groupings. Launching an attack on supporting directions insures their piecemeal destruction.

The front establishes groupings of forces and means on the direction of supporting attacks that are capable of establishing on their own the required superiority over the enemy leading to his destruction at high speed, with or without nuclear weapons.

In operations conducted with nuclear weapons the destruction of enemy groupings, including his nuclear weapons, is generally achieved by use of nuclear weapons. Therefore, the need for superiority over the enemy and dense concentrations of artillery, tanks, and infantry troops on the specific directions of the attacks will not arise. However, in resolving combat missions during offensive operations without nuclear weapons, establishment of a density of forces and superiority over the enemy in conventional weapons is required. In determining the directions of the main and supporting attacks, as well as in the establishment of the groupings for front forces, the need to create conditions for enemy destruction, not only with nuclear weapons, but without the employment of the nuclear weapons, must be taken into careful consideration.

The establishment of superiority in troops and means over the enemy obviously entails concentration of forces and means in relatively narrow sectors of the front. This makes them dangerously vulnerable because they are easy targets for enemy nuclear weapons. In order to curb the likelihood of sustaining losses in the face of enemy fire, the following must be done:
- friendly strike groupings are dispersed across the front and in depth;
- FUP areas of the troops must be fortified by engineer works;
- troops must be camouflaged;
- personnel and combat equipment must be sheltered in covered positions.

The movement of front forces for the attack must be conducted from dispersed positions in the FUP area (departure area for the attack or staging area). They must deploy for the attack from the line of march as they approach enemy lines. Dense groupings of forces are created only during the conduct of the penetration (breakthrough) of the enemy defenses by moving units and formations from dispersed assembly areas along converging directions to narrow sectors of penetration. As the area of penetration expands in the depth of enemy defenses, such dense groupings rapidly disperse to the flanks and advance at high speed to the interior of enemy defenses.



 
 

Operational Formation of the Front

The commander establishes the operational formation of front forces for the offensive on the basis of, and in compliance with, requirements of the missions assigned to the front. It must comply with the concept of the operation. The formation's design must insure that the front can establish striking groupings and constantly expand its efforts in the directions of attack. In offensive operations the front normally deploys its operational formation in two echelons and also has combined arms reserves. Other elements of the front operational formation include:
- air defense troops;
- front air force;
- airborne assault troops;
- seaborne assault troops (during the attack in naval directions);
- various other reserves.

The front's first-echelon includes combined arms and tank armies. However, when the combat action is conducted without nuclear weapons, the tank army is better kept in the second- echelon.



 
 

Missions

Missions of front forces are assigned in accordance with the concept of the operation. During the assignment of missions to first-echelon armies, the commander specifies the following points:
- combat composition, attached and supporting means;
- direction of the main attack;
- immediate and long-range missions;
- number of nuclear and conventional rounds to be used;
- enemy targets in the army's sector which are to be destroyed by front nuclear delivery means;
- missions of adjacent armies, method of interaction with them, and boundaries with adjacents;
- deployment of command posts.

The immediate mission of the army can be the destruction of enemy first operational echelon forces (main forces of enemy first-echelon corps and the enemy's immediate reserves). The depth of the immediate mission of the army can be 100-150 km or more.

The long-range mission of the army is destruction of enemy troops, reserves, and seizure of areas, the attainment of which will insure the achievement of the aim of the operation. The depth of army long-range missions can be 150-200 km beyond the immediate mission.

Front rocket troops are assigned the following:
- targets to be destroyed during initial massive nuclear strikes;
- number and yield of nuclear weapons to be used against each target, type of explosion, time of readiness for fire (launch), and preparation and time of delivery of nuclear and conventional warheads;
- measures to preserve constant combat-readiness of rocket troops for delivery of nuclear strikes;
- method and time of deployment of rocket troops for the initiation of the operation and their movement and relocation during the operation.

The commander specifies the assignment of missions to artillery, the groupings of the artillery, method of the conduct of the preparatory fire, assault support fire, and artillery missions during the conduct of the operation.

He assigns the following to the air army:
- missions during the initial nuclear strikes of the front;
- missions during participation in the strategic air operation to destroy enemy groupings of air forces in the TVD and establishment of air supremacy (if such an operation is to be conducted);
- missions during attack preparatory and assault support fire;
- distribution of sorties to missions

He gives the second-echelon army of the front the following assignments:
- area of concentration (deployment) in the FUP (staging area) and method of its occupation and improvement with engineer works to insure covered accommodation of the troops;
- areas of responsibility to resist enemy airborne assault troops, enemy reconnaissance, and spies;
- form of movement at the beginning of the attack;
- areas or lines of commitment into combat, the direction of the attack (blow), and possible missions;
- supporting means to be attached to the army during its commitment into combat and targets to be destroyed by front nuclear delivery means and front aviation in the sector of army attacks.

Air defense troops receive the following instructions:
- which groupings of forces and rear service installations to cover with the main effort of the air defense at the beginning and during the conduct of the operation;
- method of repelling enemy air strikes;
- method of coordination (interaction) with fighter aviation, national air defense operational formations and other formations;
- composition of duty (dejurnie) troops and means;
- method of deployment of air defense formations and units at the beginning of the operation and their maneuver during the operation.

Airborne assault troops receive the following:
- composition of each "dessant;"
- areas, time, and means of landing;
- combat missions during actions in the enemy's rear;
- method for delivering nuclear and air strikes on enemy targets in drop zones, landing areas, and areas of "dessant's" combat action;
- coordination (interaction) with air force and front forces attacking from the front;
- staging areas, times of occupation, times of preparation of each "dessant" to be dropped (landed);
- organization of command and control.

Seaborne assault troops (when employed) are assigned the following:
- composition and missions;
- time, place, and method of landing on enemy occupied coasts;
- method of support by ships and air forces during the landing and subsequently;
- assembly areas, embarkation areas, and the time to prepare for the assault landing;
- providing security during embarkation of ships, during movement on the seas, and method of coordination (interaction) with naval forces, rocket troops, air forces, and forces conducting the attack along the naval direction (coastline).

The front commander must specify the following:
- composition and missions of front reserves, areas of their deployment, and method of their movement (relocation);
- time and place of deployment of command posts and the direction of their advance.

The front commander also assigns the missions and tasks of political affairs and issues instructions on organization and execution of measures related to party and political affairs. He also establishes requirements for preparation of personnel for the operation in terms of morale and psychological matters.

In his instructions to the chief of staff and chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, the front commander specifies the method and sequence for the following:
- planning the operation;
- disseminating missions to subordinates;
- organizing interaction;
- maintaining high combat-readiness of the troops;
- organizing comprehensive supporting measures;
- establishing and conducting troop control.



 
 

Commander's Terrain Reconnaissance

In some cases, the front commander may conduct the evaluation of the terrain actually on the ground to confirm parts of his decision (made on the map) on the ground.



 
 

The Procedure to Convey the Missions to Subordinates and the Principal Documents Issued by the Headquarters

Combat missions are issued to subordinate operational units in accordance with the commander's decision for offensive operations. The missions are issued by the commander or according to his instruction by the chief of staff visiting the subordinate commands. The missions can also be issued through communication technical means or by written orders sent by communication means or hand-delivered by staff officers. The missions issued verbally are later supplemented by written documents.

The principal combat documents pertaining to issuance of combat missions are the operational directive and combat instructions. The full text of the operational directive is not sent to subordinate units but each unit is separately informed about its relevant parts included in the full text of the operational directive.

The operational directive is personally written by the chief of staff or chief of the operations directorate on the basis of the commander's decision. The combat instructions are filled out by the chief of the operations section or relevant section chief by using the full text of the operational directive.

The chief of the reconnaissance directorate participates in writing the point on the enemy in the operational directive, and in spelling out the missions of combat and combat support arms. The chiefs of related arms also may participate. The directive and instructions are signed by the commander and the chief of staff. The combat directives to combat and combat support arms and services are signed by the related directorate chief and his chief of staff. Only the instruction on engineer and chemical support are signed by front chief of staff and the related directorate chiefs. The rear service instruction is signed by chief of the rear service directorate and his chief of staff.

 
 

Figure 53 - FRONT PLANNING DOCUMENTS

Operation plan - offensive 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with instructions and calendar plan
Plan for preparation and occupation of FUP areas 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instructions on map
Plan for initial nuclear strike 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instructions
Plan for employment of airborne assault units 1:500,000 1:200,000 map with written instructions on map
Plan for employment of rocket troops and artillery 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instructions
Air defense plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with instructions on the map, plus the alert scheme
Reconnaissance plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 maps with written instructions or written form with map annex
Tactical concealment plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instruction
Plan for protection against mass-destruction weapons and eliminating impact of their use Written with map annex
Engineer support plan 1:500,000 1:200,000 map with written instructions on map
Chemical support plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000

map with written instructions on map

Rear Services plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instructions on map
Technical support plan 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 map with written instructions on map
Deployment and movement of command posts plan Operations map and signal map with instructions
Communications plan 1:500,000 radio diagram with calculations on number of radios, radio-relay diagram, wire diagram, and calculations of signal troops
Political affairs plan Written
 
 

Planning the Operation

Planning is an important component of preparation, which insures the following:
- unified and proper direction for the conduct of the operation;
- clear perspective and consistency in combat actions;
- effective and wise employment of forces and means;
- efficient use of material and technical supplies;
- resources for successful accomplishment of the mission and achievement of the aim of the operation.

Planning the operation is conducted by the front staff on the basis of the front commander's decision and his instructions. During planning all issues and details of the commander's decisions are thoroughly organized as follows:
- sequence and form of execution of each operational mission;
- effort of troops and consumption of supplies in each mission and on each direction of the attack;
- method of interaction among the troops during the mission;
- issues relating to political and party affairs;
- combat support measures;
- troop control.

Planning the offensive operation is conducted in terms of the front's missions. This means that the planning activity itself is organized in the time phase sequence of the operation. This sequence considers in turn the method for accomplishing the mission to deliver the initial nuclear strike, the immediate mission, and then the long-range mission with or without nuclear weapons.

The method of action of troops and means during the conduct of the immediate mission is planned in greater detail than the long-range mission. The most detailed planning concentrates on the actions of the troops and means during the first days of the operation. The method of conduct of the long-range mission is planned in general terms.

During the planning of the initial nuclear strike, the method for destruction of detected enemy nuclear delivery means is calculated to inflict decisive losses on enemy troops, his air force, air defense means, and command posts. Other targets within the area of the front's offensive operation are also determined. The initial nuclear strikes against enemy targets are planned up to the boundary line of strikes of strategic nuclear forces, which is located 250 km or farther from the front line (FLOT). The possibility of planning the delivery of strikes on enemy targets in the entire depth of the front is not excluded.

During the planning of the initial strike the number of nuclear weapons (rounds) to be used against each designated target is calculated and specified. During this process the following points are specified:
- which formations (units) deliver strikes against which targets;
- center of each explosion;
- number and yield of nuclear rounds to be used on each target;
- altitude of air bursts;
- security distance between friendly troops and the center of nuclear bursts.

During the planning of the initial nuclear strike the graphics of its conduct are worked out. The main tasks of the nuclear delivery means are specified. Allocation of the nuclear rounds in terms of front missions and operational formations of the front are detailed.

Actions of first-echelon armies are planned in terms of time, lines (area), and form of accomplishment of the immediate and long-range mission. Planning is in a more detailed form for the depth of the front's immediate mission. For the phase of conducting long-range missions of the front, the first-echelon armies are assigned the following:
- direction of attack;
- specific lines and areas to seize;
- approximate action for destroying the approaching enemy reserves as well as the groupings of forces remaining at the end of the operation.

During preparation for offensive operations details like the following are carefully considered and thoroughly organized:
- movement of troops;
- deployment in the FUP areas (staging or departure areas);
- engineer work in these areas;
- measures to insure timely initiation of the attack by the troops.

Depending on the likely character of enemy actions and likely form of the initiation of the operation, plans to meet these conditions are as follows:
- meeting engagements;
- penetration (breakthrough) of the enemy's forward defense line;
- actions to repel the enemy's likely invasion;
- forms of destruction of the enemy's covering troops and his main groupings.

For all of these forms of action, the method of conduct of preparatory fire and deployment of artillery is organized. While planning the forms of conduct of each one of the missions, the important issues are as follows:
- detailed designation of the composition of forces;
- method of action to inflict losses on enemy nuclear weapons at the beginning and during the attack.

This does not depend on the type of weapons (nuclear or conventional) used in the operation, but is done under any condition. Specific air force and artillery troops are allocated to destroy rocket systems, nuclear bombers, nuclear weapon depots (stockpiles), nuclear fougasses (mines), and other targets. Actions are launched by reconnaissance and subversion groups, airborne assault troops, and special detachments from motorized rifle and tank troops. When expecting enemy surprise attacks, the issues regarding coverage of the deployment of the front forces main groupings must be organized in detail during planning the operation. For this purpose the following points are determined:
- most likely direction of enemy attack;
- composition of troops and means assigned for covering missions (in general and on each likely direction of enemy attack);
- lines and areas occupied and held by troops assigned to conduct covering missions, methods of their movements, and conduct of combat actions;
- issues regarding support of covering troops by artillery and air force, method of interaction of covering troops with border troops and forces of first-echelon armies.

While planning the operation, detailed contents of the action of troops in the entire area of operation in terms of different directions are worked out. The following are also evaluated and assessed:
- effectiveness of nuclear and conventional weapons;
- required density of artillery, tanks, and infantry battalions in the penetration areas;
- structure and required duration of artillery preparatory fire;
- form of attack support fire;
- capabilities for destroying the aerial enemy;
- requirements for air defense means.



 
 

Plan of the Offensive Operation

Planning is shown in the plan of the offensive operation. The plan is the formulation of the decision which is marked on the map with written instructions, and necessary calculations and justifications (assessments).

The operation plan is prepared on the map or worked out in written form with a map annex reflecting the front commander's decision. The plan of offensive operation is worked out by the front's chief of staff or chief of front's operations directorate.

When the plan of the operation is prepared in a graphic form (on the map) it is shown on a 1/500,000 or 1/200,000 scale map. The map-form plan shows the following:
- enemy groupings of forces and means and the character of his likely actions;
- operational formation (deployment) of the front forces in the FUP (staging--starting) area;
- front's immediate and long-range missions, their contents, their depth, time of accomplishment, and speed of attack;
- direction of the main and other attacks;
- penetration areas to breakthrough enemy defenses;
- missions and targets of nuclear weapons during the initial nuclear strike conducted by front rocket troops and the front air army;
- the boundary separating areas of nuclear strikes delivered by strategic weapons and front means;
- directions of attacks and missions of armies (corps) showing times of their accomplishments and boundaries;
- method and form of commitment of second-echelon troops into combat;
- composition, missions, areas, and times of dropping (landing) of airborne and seaborne assault troops;
- deployment of command posts of the front and armies at the beginning of the operation and their movement (relocation) during the operation;
- boundaries with adjacent armies of other fronts and missions of these armies;
- the scope of the operation.

All other information, calculations, and guiding data are described in written instructions. Written instructions and details usually include the following:
- assessment of the enemy situation, capabilities, and intent;
- combat composition of the front and its capabilities;
- correlation of forces and means;
- aim and concept of the operation;
- availability, time of delivery, and distribution of nuclear, special rounds, and material supplies;
- distribution of forces and means;
- distribution of aircraft sorties among missions and armies;
- method of providing security for friendly troops during nuclear strikes;
- method of conduct of attack preparatory, supporting fire, and other related instructions.

When the plan of the offensive operation is prepared in written form, the contents and order of their presentation are as follows:
- deductions from the clarification of the mission and assessment of the situation;
- aim and concept of the operation;
- missions and methods of the use of nuclear and conventional means of destruction;
- missions of first-echelon armies, missions of second-echelon troops, airborne and seaborne assault troops, reserves, and method of their action;
- missions and forms of combat employment of rocket and artillery troops;
- missions and methods of combat actions of the air army;
- missions of air defense troops and methods of repelling enemy air attacks;
- method of interaction among troops;
- measures for all-around support of the operation;
- missions and methods of the conduct of party and political affairs;
- organization of troop control and signal communication.

The annexes to the plans of front offensive operations include the following:
- plan of the initial strike of the front;
- plan for preparation and occupation of the FUP areas for the attack (staging--departure areas);
- plan of operational maskirovka;
- plan of employment of airborne (seaborne) assault troops;
- other plans and documents;
- plan of political affairs.

The chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services and the air army staff prepare plans for combat employment of their forces and plans of all types of combat supporting measures. All of these plans are worked out on the basis of the decision of the front commander.

The plan of the initial nuclear strike is prepared by the operations directorate along with the chief of rocket and artillery troops and the air army staff, under the direct supervision of the chief of staff. The plan is graphically depicted on a 1/500,000 or 1/200,000 scale map with an annex of written instructions and a graphic for launching the initial nuclear strike.

The plan of preparation and occupation of FUP areas by front forces is an important required document. It provides for measures on ensuring activeness and survival of front forces and means against enemy strikes prior to the initiation of the operation and constant readiness of the troops to repel enemy surprise attacks and his invasion, with or without nuclear weapons.

The plan should be prepared on a 1/200,000 scale map with a written annex and a graphic of the arrival of troops at FUP areas. On the map portion of the plan of preparation and occupation of the FUP areas, the following matters are depicted graphically:
- location of permanent military posts (assembly areas occupied at the alarm signal by the troops) of formations and headquarters;
- FUP areas (staging area and departure areas);
- directions of arrival (movement) of troops to FUP areas;
- composition of forces and means assigned to cover troops and directions of their approach (movement) to specific covering lines and positions;
- system of engineering fortifications at lines, areas, and positions;
- areas and lines of establishment of engineer obstacles and demolitions;
- other details.

The written portion of the plan includes the following:
- assessment of likely enemy actions and the most probable directions of his attack;
- composition and mission of covering troops;
- mission of troops in the main groupings of forces on repulse of enemy surprise invasions;
- principal measures on engineer support in the FUP and approach areas;
- engineer troops assigned to conduct such measures;
- time and method of arrival (movement) of formations and units to the FUP areas.

A separate graphic of the arrival (movement) of the front's forces and their occupation of the FUP area can also be prepared.

Planning the front offensive operation is very complicated work. It requires harmony in action and steady guidance on the part of the chief of staff, the staff, and the front commander. Planning is based on objective and realistic calculations of the capabilities of friendly and enemy forces. It must be built on forecasts (anticipations) of developments in combat actions and should provide for effective coordination of employment of all troops and means, particularly nuclear weapons.

The major role in organization of the plan of the operation is played by the operations directorate of the front. The operations directorate works in close cooperation with the chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services, and the staff of the air army.

In order to insure procedural organization in preparing the required data for making the decision, preparation of all documents related to the operation, and accomplishment of other necessary tasks, a calendar plan is developed. Such a plan reflects time of accomplishment and the executing elements involved in conducting all necessary measures. Included are documents of the plan of operation, time to be reviewed by the chief of staff, and time to be approved by the front commander. Calendar plans for preparation of the operation can be prepared graphically (on graph paper). A sample of the front's calendar plan is in Chapter Five.



Supervision

The commander inspects the planning process, guides the operation of the staff if necessary and ratifies and approves the planning documents. At the designated time the commander reports and presents the plan of the operation and other documents to the supreme commander.

The chief of staff directly supervises the planning process and coordinates the activities of different directorates. The chief of staff sets deadlines for the preparation of the documents and specifies the amount of details to be covered. He personally participates in preparation of important documents (such as initial nuclear strike). The chief of staff controls the planning process, specifies the time of completion of the work, signs the prepared documents and gets them approved by the commander.

The planning group, joined by the chief of staff of the air army, the chief of artillery and rocket forces and the chief of the operations directorate, works out the plan of the initial nuclear strike. In the operations directorate the plan of preparation and occupation of forming up (FUP) areas, the plan of the employment of air and seaborne assault units, the plan of operational concealment (maskirovka), the plan of protection against nuclear weapons, and the plan of hydro-meteorology are prepared. Officers from the operations directorate are assigned to work out the above mentioned plans. A separate plan of troop control the plan of operation of the computer center may be prepared.

The reconnaissance directorate provides the needed information on the enemy required for planning the operation and also prepares the reconnaissance plan of the offensive operation. The radio-electronic warfare section joins the planning group to prepare the plan of radio-electronic warfare. The section also participates in preparing the concealment (maskirovka) and disinformation plan. The chief of the signal directorate along with his staff officers prepares the signal communication plan. The prepared planning documents are reported to and signed by the chief of staff at the pre-designated time.



 
 

Procedure to Establish Interaction - the Plan (table) of Coordination


Interaction is an important measure in troop preparation. It is organized to the entire depth of the operation and is primarily in support of the troops operating in the direction of the main attack. Interaction is organized in more detail for the phase of the initial nuclear strike and for the first day of the attack. Interaction for subsequent days during the conduct of the immediate mission is organized relatively in less detail due to difficulties in close assessment of the situation. During the future long-range missions of the front it is organized in general terms.

In all measures of organization of interaction attention is concentrated primarily on subordinates understanding their combat missions and forms of coordination with the forces and means conducting them.

The organization of interaction in the offensive operation must provide for the coordination of the following actions during the accomplishment of assigned missions:
- nuclear strikes of front rocket troops and front aviation;
- strikes launched by the means of the Supreme High Command and adjacents;
-actions of armies and formations organic to the front;
- actions of combat arms and special troops and air forces in terms of objectives, times, and places. Action of front air defense troops are coordinated with actions of national air defense forces. The principal measures on establishment of all-around support in the interest of the combat action of the troops must be confirmed.

Interaction in terms of targets between the strategic rocket forces, long-range aircraft, adjacents and front's means, can be established in three ways. One is by specifying the boundaries to separate the destruction areas of the enemy targets assigned to each one of them. The second is by assigning specific targets to each element in the same area. The third method is a combination of both forms can be used. The form to be used is determined by the general staff.

Interaction in the front is established as follows:
- among first-echelon armies;
- among first- and second-echelon armies of the front;
- among formations, operational formations of combined arms, rocket and artillery troops, and the air force;
- interaction between rocket troops and the air army of the front;
- interaction between the front forces and airborne (seaborne) assault troops;
- interaction among front air defense troops and means.

The operation and combat action of the troops are elaborately coordinated during their action, following the initial nuclear strike, and during the conduct of missions. The following are examples:
- destruction of the enemy in the security (covering) zone;
- simultaneous actions to seize important areas and major operational targets;
- destruction of the enemy in the meeting engagement;
- encirclement of the enemy and destruction of an encircled enemy grouping, or his reserves and groupings of forces trying to launch a counterblow (counterattack).

The staff elaborately coordinates the troops' actions in terms of objectives, times, and places. In other cases, the combat action of the troops is always thoroughly coordinated in the same way when joint, concerted action is required to accomplish the missions.

The following are organized and conducted during peacetime:
- combat, political, and operational training;
- preparation of troops and staffs.

Interaction of the troops in the operation is personally organized by the front commander. The front staff insures the establishment of interaction and its continuity during the course of accomplishment of all missions of the offensive operation. The content of interaction measures, in the context of the plan of the offensive operation, includes the following points:
- coordination of SSM and air force nuclear strikes with strikes launched by the Supreme High Command and adjacent units and also with fire of conventional means;
- coordination of combat action of large motorized rifle units with the operation of other combat and combat support arms formations and the air force;
- adjustment and reconfirmation of measures on all-around support of combat actions in the offensive operation;
- organization in the headquarters and the troops of the alerting system;
- specification of the method of communication within the headquarters and the element conducting coordination (interaction) with the forces represented by the headquarters;
- designation of a unified system of interaction signals, the signals to indicate (define) targets, mutual identification and a unified system of numbering targets.

The front commander specifies the principal points of interaction in his decision. Additionally, after the decision is made, he issues instructions on interaction. For a better organization of interaction the front commander conducts briefing (instructional) sessions with his subordinate commanders on the map, terrain models (sand table) or if time permits (when time is available) on the terrain.

When operations are organized and planned in peacetime, interaction is developed and resolved through field exercises, war games, and command and staff exercises (CPXs). When time is limited the commander, while assigning missions to subordinates, also instructs them on tasks related to interaction. Whenever necessary the commander arranges a meeting of interacting subordinate commanders who are assigned to the main attack direction and listens to their coordination arrangements. On other axes the chief of staff or first deputy commander organizes interaction.

In case of a surprise beginning of combat operations, the commander issues combat instructions on interaction by technical signal equipment or sends responsible staff officers to convey the adjusted instructions on coordinating measures to the units.

The front staff supports and assists the commander in organizing interaction on the map, on the terrain or on the model of the terrain (sand table). This support is provided by the operations directorate which also works out the plan of the commander's activities regarding the organization of interaction. The plan covers all points to be taken up by the commander and the method and sequence of his work on the terrain or on the model of the terrain. If interaction is going to be organized on the terrain the plan will include the following points:
- the questions (issues) of interaction;
- the place and time of their discussion and solution; who attends the session and on which terrain spot;
- the directions of movement;
- designation of transportation means;
- organization of communication and security;
- measures on secrecy during the work on the terrain;
- means and material required; who supplies them, etc.

When interaction is organized in front headquarters or in the headquarters of one of the subordinate units, the operations directorate provides and prepares the maps or models of the terrain.

The front staff, in regard to the organization of interaction should make sure that during the execution of joint tasks, all participating combat arms and different services of the armed forces should have a common understanding about the form of accomplishment of the assigned mission.

During organization of the offensive operation plan, the actions of operational formations of different arms and the air force are coordinated in terms of objectives, place and time. The form of their joint operation during the accomplishment of immediate and subsequent missions is also coordinated.

During organization of the plan of the initial nuclear strike, the front staff coordinates the strikes of front forces with those of strategic rocket forces, long-range air force, adjacents and also with the fire and strikes of conventional means. The measures on all-around support of combat operations of the troops are also coordinated.

The front staff along with the staff of the air army, the staff of air defense forces and the chief of the chemical directorate works out the signals and the method for mutual warning about the enemy's aircraft, and radioactive, chemical, and biological contamination of the terrain.

The chief of the signal directorate, in accordance with instructions from the chief of staff, specifies the method of communication among the elements interacting in joint actions. He also provides communications for the commander with the units when the commander goes to the terrain to organize coordination.

The front staff may prepare a special interaction document (the plan or the table of interaction). The document covers the method of accomplishment of combat missions by joint action. The unified system of signals for coordination, warning, and numbering of the targets is specified.

The interaction plan is worked out by the operations directorate along with the staffs of rocket and artillery forces, air defense, engineer, air army, the chief of the chemical directorate and the chief of radio-electronic warfare.

The chiefs of combat and combat support arms may establish coordination between subordinate units and large units of their respective arms, in accordance with the commander's instructions.

The chief of rear service coordinates the operation of rear service organs, units, and establishments during accomplishment of assigned missions.



 
 

Procedure to Organize Support of Combat Action

Combat support measures conducted to aid the combat actions of the troops is one of
-the main factors in achieving a successful operation. Therefore, these measures must be thoroughly considered and organized in advance.

Types of combat support measures include the following:
- reconnaissance;
- operational "maskirovka;"
- protection of rear service troops and targets (installations), from mass-destruction weapons;
- engineer support;
- radio-electronic support;
- chemical support;
- hydro-meteorologic support;
- topo-geodetic support;
- rear service support.

Combat support measures for the front offensive operation are organized on the basis of the front commander's decision and his instructions. Actions relating to combat support measures are organized directly under the supervision and leadership of the chief of staff.

The front staff organizes the following:
- reconnaissance;
- protection of troops and rear service installations from mass-destruction weapons;
- radio-electronic combat;
- hydro-meteorologic and topo-geodetic support.

The related chiefs of special troops and services organize and conduct other types of conduct supporting measures. The chief of staff of the front works out a plan and gives instructions to the troops for each type of combat support measure.

Staff actions on organization of measures in support of troop combat operations not only cover the specification of the tasks related to different types of support but also include the designation of troops and means to accomplish these tasks, the assignment of missions to the elements which accomplish them and the organization of coordination among them.

The chief of staff issues necessary instructions to the relevant directorate chiefs on preparing plans and instructions about support measures. He coordinates the actions of the staff with those of combat arms, special troops, and services staffs in the area of required support of troop combat operations.

In the front staff the chief of the reconnaissance directorate organizes reconnaissance while the chief of operations is involved in organization of plans and instructions on protection against mass-destruction weapons, operational concealment (maskirovka), and hydro-meteorological support. The chief of the radio-electronic warfare section prepares instructions and plans about radio-electronic warfare and the chief of the topographic section organizes instructions on topo-geodetic support.

The reconnaissance plan is prepared in written form with a map annex or in a graphic form with an annex of written instructions. According to the plan, instructions on reconnaissance are issued to the armies and the chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services. Instructions to front reconnaissance troops are given personally by the chief of the reconnaissance directorate. The most important elements in the organization of reconnaissance are the collection, analysis and reporting of reconnaissance information and the dissemination of information to relevant persons.

Based on the instructions of the chief of staff, the operations directorate along with the chief of the chemical directorate disseminates information on the radiation, chemical and bacteriological situation. The operations directorate establishes the system to warn the troops, headquarters and adjacents about ground and air contamination. It also acquires information on hydro-meteorology and informs subordinate units about the hydro-meteorological situation. The operations directorate along with the chief of the chemical directorate, in close cooperation with the chiefs of combat and combat support arms and services, organizes the plan of troop protection and the protection measures against mass-destruction weapons. Such measures are also included in the plan of operations, the plans for the employment of combat arms and services, the plan of supporting measures of combat operations and the logistics (rear services) plan. The operations directorate writes the instructions on troop protection against mass-destruction weapons and has them signed by the chief of staff before it sends them to the subordinate units.

Operational concealment (maskirovka) is organized and implemented by the front staff in accordance with the commander's decision and the instructions of the general staff. The chief of staff personally participates in organizing operational concealment. The chief of operations, the chiefs of combat and combat support arms, the chief of staff of the air army and the chief of staff of the logistic directorate may be called on to take part.

The front commander specifies the basic tasks on organization and the area of concentration of the main efforts of radio-electronic warfare. The chief of staff thoroughly evaluates the enemy's command and control system, estimates the radio-electronic situation, determines the strong and weak points in the enemy's radio-electronic system as well as the radio- electronic tasks to be accomplished. The chief of staff gives instructions to the chief of the radio-electronic department, the chief of staff of the air army, the chiefs of combat and combat support arms on organization and execution of radio-electronic warfare. He also instructs the chief of signals on protection of friendly radio-electronic means against the enemy's radio-electronic warfare. The chief of radio-electronic warfare, in close cooperation with the above mentioned officers, prepares the plan and instructions on radio-electronic warfare and controls their implementation.

Engineer and chemical support of the combat operation is organized by the chiefs of engineers and chemical while all types of rear services support are planned and conducted by the deputy front commander for rear services.

The chief of staff in a close and timely manner controls the implementation of the commander's instructions on support of combat operations. He also organizes interaction and mutual information flow related to the organization of all-around support of combat operations.



 
 

Procedure to Organize Control of Troops' Actions

Control of troop actions during preparation of the operation is conducted by the staff in order to insure the timely and thorough execution of the commander's instructions on taking necessary measures, organizing combat operations and thoroughly preparing the troops to accomplish combat missions. Under all conditions control is supplemented by assisting the subordinate commanders and staffs in organization of offensive operations and by maintaining constant high combat readiness of the troops to accomplish the combat missions in the operation.

The commander monitors the operation of the front staff, chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services and the chief of rear services with respect to comprehensive planning of the operation, timely issuance of combat missions to the troops and the organization and support of the troop control system. At the same time the commander, the staff, responsible officers, and other troop control organs control the actions of subordinate units and staffs.

This control includes timely reception of the mission and its accurate clarification by the subordinates; compliance of subordinate army and other large unit commanders' decisions with the front commander's operational concept and its thorough and accurate incorporation into the planning of the operation. The staff is especially careful to control the following: the preparedness of troop units to initiate the operation in a timely fashion, have a clear understanding of the signals, observe rules of secrecy in troop control and signal communication and the measures to protect the troops against mass-destruction weapons. The chief of staff bears the responsibility for timely control of the troops' actions.

Control is maintained by various methods. Most often the commander or other responsible officers go to the troops, or the units are contacted by communication means. The documents sent by subordinates to the higher staff are studied. Air photography of subordinate positions is conducted and subordinates' transmissions are monitored. Visits to the troops are conducted in accordance with a unified plan worked out by the operations directorate.


Measures on Security of Troop Control

The troop control is conducted on the basis of (in accord with) the front commander's and the general staff instructions. The chief of staff specifies the measures to be taken on organization and establishment of the troop control system in the (FUP) areas. He insures the firmness and continuity of control operations in the course of the offensive operation.

At the beginning of the operation the system of troop control includes organization and deployment of the command post system, the signal system, and the system of collecting and organizing situational information.

The relocation of command posts and the maintenance of an un-disrupted signal communication system are planned. The method of sending information on the situation (situation reports) and their processing and the method of reporting during the course of the operation are specified. The method of defense and protection of command posts and signal centers and lines is determined. The staff prepares measures to protect command posts and troop control means against mass-destruction means and against the enemy's radio-electronic warfare. The staff also take measures to restore a disrupted troop control system. The plan specifies procedures for alternating command posts. The traffic regulation and commandant's service is organized and measures are taken to insure the secrecy of troop control.

The troop control system includes permanent, field, and mobile command posts. Command posts and signal units are described in more detail in section I, above.

The permanent command posts are prepared in peacetime and are used for the troop control during the period of bringing the troops to the state of full combat readiness, while occupying (FUP) areas, while repulsing the enemy's surprise invasion and during the accomplishment of other missions in the initial phase of the operation.

In the course of the operation field mobile command posts (main command post, forward command post, rear command post, and auxiliary command post) are established, deployed and fortified to control the troops. When the operation is conducted under special terrain conditions where troop control of part of the troops is impossible or difficult from the main command post, an auxiliary command post is established.


The Signal System

The front establishes a unified signal system. See section I for description of the signal units which create this system. The principal elements of the system are: signal centers of the front, armies, and other large units' command posts; auxiliary signal center, the axes of multi-channel radio-relay and telephone lines, the lines of signal directions to the rear of the armies and SSM large units and units, the front lateral lines and also the radio axes and nets.

The system for collecting and processing information about the situation is centrally established at the front level. In peacetime information on the situation is continuously collected from the general staff, espionage reconnaissance, radio and radar reconnaissance, organization of observation along the border and from the border troops. Measures on full deployment of the system of collection and processing information on the situation are foreseen and taken well in advance. These measures include the sources of information about the enemy and friendly forces, the command and control organs who organize and conduct the collection and processing of this information and the type of technical equipment to process the acquired information.

Information on the enemy arrives at the center of collection and processing of information from the chief of reconnaissance's command post, the command post of the air army, the command post of the air defense chief, the staff of rocket and artillery forces, and the chief of the chemical directorate. Information on friendly forces is received from the armies' centers of information collection and processing and the staffs of combat and combat support arms and services. The information received at the center is logged and formulated in a way easy to analyze and evaluate. The degree of importance, precedence and accuracy of the reports is determined at the center and the important news is reported to the commander and the chief of staff.


Traffic Regulation and Commandant Service

This is organized by the staff in accordance with the commander's decision. During the period of preparation of the offensive operation the principal tasks of traffic regulation and commandant service are as follows:
- regulation of troop movement on the roads, particularly in the passes and at crossings, areas of contaminated terrain and lanes opened in obstacles;
- control of troops to insure they observe the specified order in movement and the concealment rules;
- collection of personnel, vehicles, and equipment to their respective units and large units;
- provision of security along movement axes and combat against enemy's reconnaissance and subversive groups and spies along the movement axes and in troop locations;
- report contaminated areas to the staffs;
- regulation of movement of the civilian population in accordance with the specified order.

The measures related to traffic regulation and commandant service are depicted in the commandant services plan. This document is worked out in the operations directorate and it is prepared on the map with written instructions. The chief of route control, chief of signals, the chief of engineers and others are called to participate in preparing the document. It is signed by the chief of staff and chief of operations and approved by the commander. To conduct traffic regulation and commandant service, road construction and traffic units and movement regulation units are assigned and if necessary some units from the combat troops can also be assigned for the job. Its composition includes the commanders of regions and areas of the commandant service, provost and traffic patrols (each 4-5 persons) and movement regulation patrols (each 3-4 persons) equipped with communication and transportation means, chemical and radiation detection equipment, and road and traffic signs.

Secrecy of troop control is organized to insure reliable protection of national and military secrets. The principal measures for protecting state (national) and military secrets are listed below:
- education of all personnel of the units and staffs to a high spirit of vigilance;
- reduction to a minimum the number of the personnel involved in preparation of information for making the decision, planning the operation and preparing the documents to assign missions to the troops; and also cutting the number of personnel who will have access to secret documents;
- when assigning important missions and in case important orders are issued, they should be directly issued and transmitted to the commanders, chiefs of staff, the chiefs of combat and combat support arms;
- organization of secrecy in troop control by signal communication means and not allowing open conversation over the signal communication means;
- strict enforcement of signal communication discipline, limiting the number of people authorized to use signal communication means. Controlling the observance of rules of transmission over the communication means;
- taking necessary measures on radio concealment;
- reliable protection of classified and service documents during their preparation and sending out;
- constant control of the protection and secrecy of state (national) and military secrets in the troops and staffs in full compliance with the field regulations, directives, manuals, etc.

The chief of staff bears the responsibility for organization of secrecy of troop control. The direct organizer of the troop control secrecy is the chief of 8th section.



 
 

Preparing the Troops and FUP Areas Prior to the Initiation of Military Action

Along with the decision and working out the plan of operation, a great deal of organizational work, requiring a lot of time, must be conducted by the commander, staff, and field troop control organs of the front. This involves the following:
- preparation of generals and officers;
- conveying missions to the troops and organization of interaction among them;
- conduct of reconnaissance;
- conduct of combat, political, and operational preparation (training) of the troops and staff;
- conduct of engineer work (establishment of engineer fortifications) in the FUP areas;
- preparation and deployment of the rear services;
- measures on preparation (readiness) of troop control and all-around combat supporting measures, in the interest of troop combat actions during the operation.


Preparing FUP Areas

In contemporary times, great attention is given to preparation of the FUP's (staging, departure, or starting areas) of the troops prior to the initiation of the combat action. This action is a requirement imposed by the facts relating to the high combat-readiness of potential enemy rocket-nuclear weapons, his air force, and ground forces groupings in the Western and other TVDs, the possibility of a surprise nuclear strike, and the danger of enemy aggression. Advance engineer work and installations at the FUP areas enhance the viability and activeness of the troops. This provides favorable conditions for repulsing enemy surprise attacks and for initiating the offensive under various circumstances at the outbreak of war.

Preparation of the front troop's FUP areas for attack includes the following:
- installation of the FUP areas for first-echelon formations;
- deployment areas of second-echelon formations and assembly (deployment) areas of front second-echelon troops and front reserves;
- main and alternate position areas of armies and front rocket and artillery troops;
- fire and deployment positions of air defense and radio-technical means;
- concealed, dirt surface, airfield bases;
- deployment areas of special troops (combat support arms);
- command posts and signal centers.

In addition to this, during preparation of the FUP areas, the following are also done:
- signal communication lines are established;
- roads and bridges are developed to facilitate troop movement, supply of materials, and evacuation;
- obstacle and demolition areas are prepared on likely directions (axes) of possible enemy attacks.

FUP areas for first-echelon formations (divisions) are prepared 20-40 kilometers from the national border. Therefore, these formations are protected against enemy artillery fire and the possible use of tactical-chemical weapons. One to five kilometers from the border positions are prepared for covering troops, artillery, and for rocket (SSM) battalions of the first-echelon divisions. They are responsible for supporting the troops by nuclear strikes during the initiation of the attack by friendly forces and also during the repulsion of enemy surprise invasions. Areas of deployment for second-echelon divisions are prepared at a distance of 60-80 km from the border.

Front second-echelon troops and reserves establish their assembly (deployment) areas in order to provide for a dispersed deployment of troops. Formations may be assigned areas of responsibility where the related formations and units must maintain order and discipline among civilian population, or where they must destroy enemy airborne-assault and subversive (sabotage) groups.

The preparation of the FUP areas by troops and means is conducted in full compliance with secrecy and concealment measures. Therefore, it is required that the major part of such actions are conducted in accordance with the operational "maskirovka" plan.

During peacetime it is not possible to prepare the FUP areas everywhere in advance in terms of engineer work. In this case all matters related to organization of the FUP areas must be conducted, reconnaissance and evaluation of the terrain must be accomplished, and the FUP areas of units and sub-units and the method of their occupation must be specified. Movement of troops to the FUP areas will be conducted according to special instructions from the supreme commander in chief. Troops move toward, and enter the FUP areas from their permanent garrisons, from assembly areas occupied after the alarm, or from the exercise areas.

During preparation of the initial operation of the front the missions of troops are normally specified in advance during peacetime. The method for disseminating missions to the executing elements is determined by the general staff. In order to maintain and safeguard secrecy of the concept of future operations only a limited number of staff are briefed on the missions of the troops and then only in matters related to their respective functions. Those will include primarily the chief of staff and chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services and directorates of the staff. The operational plans of the armies can also be worked out in the military district (group of forces) headquarters. In preparing army operational plans operational groups of the respective armies (group of staff officers), headed by the army commander, can participate with the approval of the general staff.

The army commander will personally receive his missions in the military district (group of forces) headquarters. The summary of front operational directives or plans of the offensive operation of the army are placed in sealed envelopes bearing the seal of the military district (group of forces) headquarters. They are kept and safeguarded in the army commander's safe. These envelopes can only be opened when a designated signal is received or by instructions of the military district (group of forces) commander.

The missions down to the level of commanders of formations and units normally are not conveyed in peacetime. However, operation orders, including the missions of the formations and units (sealed by the military district or group of forces, front, or army) are kept in the personal safes of the commander. They can only be opened by signal or by order of the military district (group of forces) headquarters.

In case of drastic changes in the situation, readjustment and confirmation of missions planned in prepared documents may become necessary. In such cases new missions are assigned. The readiness and preparation of commanders and staff to resolve such issues in a limited time are of particular importance.

Under all conditions, the most important requirements in conveying missions to the troops are:
- timely assignment of missions;
- brevity and clarity of missions.

The missions must be worded in such a way that misinterpretation, or multi-interpretation are avoided.




 
 

IV ORGANIZATION AND PREPARATION OF COMBAT ACTION OF FRONT AVIATION


 
 

Organization and preparation of the combat action of front aviation in an offensive operation include a series of tasks and measures conducted by the commander and staff of front aviation. The most important tasks and measures are the following:
- making the decision;
- planning the combat action;
- establishment of the grouping and deployment of aviation forces and means;
- preparation of the main and reserve airfield network and establishment of material reserves there;
-organization of interaction;
- organization of various supporting measures;
- organization of troop control.

The commander of front aviation makes his decision on the employment of front aviation after he completes his clarification of the mission, studies the front commander's decision for the offensive operation and the front aviation mission in support of the front operations, studies the instructions from the staff of the main command of the air force, and makes a thorough assessment of the situation (estimate of the situation).

During his clarification of the mission the front aviation commander clarifies the volume and number of tasks the front aviation must accomplish during the operation and determines the most important tasks for the accomplishment of which the main effort of front aviation is to be concentrated. The commander of front aviation, through his chief of staff, briefs the chiefs of front aviation staff directorates on the assigned combat mission. He also issues preliminary orders on preparation of the air force troops, command posts, rear services, and airfield service support for the upcoming offensive operation. In addition, he instructs the chiefs of the staff directorates to prepare the required calculations needed by the front aviation commander for making the decision. The commander then begins the assessment (estimate) of the situation.



 
 

Estimate of the Situation by the Front Aviation Commander

The front aviation commander, with the assistance of the staff, personally makes the decision. In the meantime, the commander evaluates the following points during the assessment of the situation:

- During the assessment of the enemy:
--- situation, status, character of action, and intention of enemy ground forces;
- --situation, status, location, and capabilities of enemy air defense forces, strong and weak points in the enemy's air defense and, accordingly, his determination for (designation of) the corridors for the action of front aviation when it launches the initial nuclear strike or conducts the initial air operation.

- Grouping of enemy's air forces:
--- airfields on which the enemy's nuclear-capable aircraft are based, and the number and type of such aircraft;
--- likely strike directions of the enemy's air force and which targets in the front area the enemy is likely to hit;
--- likely distribution of the enemy's striking air force grouping in terms of altitudes, directions, and targets;
--- location of the command posts of enemy aircraft, primarily the command posts of nuclear-capable aircraft, the command posts of enemy air defense forces, air forces, ground forces, and the most important civil administration centers:
----- location of the enemy's nuclear rocket troops and his nuclear depots;
-----location of enemy reserves, vital rear services installations, and other important enemy targets.

- During the assessment of friendly forces:
--- situation, status, and location of friendly air force troops, availability and number of aircraft and pilots and their capabilities in conducting maximum number of flights per day;
--- situation and status of available airfields where the aircraft are based;
--- situation and status of deployment airfields and the situation of their material and technical support;
--- the level of established strength (strength in accordance with the authorized establishment) and preparedness of aviation to accomplish likely future missions;
--- in the conclusion of the assessment of friendly forces, the commander determines when the air force troops should move to the deployment airfields;
--- during the assessment of air defense troops, rocket and artillery troops, and radio-electronic warfare troops, the commander evaluates their situation, status, and capabilities and determines to what extent they can help front aviation to accomplish the mission, particularly in suppressing the enemy's air defense;
--- during the assessment of terrain, weather, season, and other meteorological factors, the commander evaluates the positive and negative effects of these factors on the air force troops, air crews, and technical services in support of air fields. Accordingly, he takes necessary measures and issues immediate instructions.

In the conclusion of a thorough and all-around assessment and deep evaluation of the situation, the front aviation commander makes his decision, to include the following points:

- 1. deductions from the assessment of the enemy:
--- the main nuclear groupings;
--- the groupings of enemy air, ground, and air defense forces.

- 2. the concept of combat action:
--- the aim of action, its objective, the main tasks on which to concentrate the main effort of the air forces, the number of flights, the number of nuclear and chemical bombs, and the grouping of front aviation;
--- the method for conducting the initial nuclear strike (targets, calculations, and distribution of troops to destroy them, operational formation, and method of penetrating the enemy air defense);
--- the method of accomplishing missions in the air operation (the initial massive strike and air battle are described in detail);
--- the method of accomplishing missions in covering friendly forces and rear service installations against enemy air strikes, in cooperation with air defense forces;
--- support of first-echelon combined arms and tank armies;
--- conduct of air reconnaissance;
--- other important tasks;
- 3. missions of large aviation units (divisions, etc.) and units (regiments):
--- each division and regiment is assigned missions for one day and an operating direction for the following day;
- 4. instructions on the front aviation air bases;
- 5. instructions on interaction;
- 6. instructions on combat support measures;
- 7. instructions on troop control, deputies, and signal communications;

After making the decision, the front aviation commander issues instructions on planning. The most detailed planning is done for the first day of the operation and especially for the initial nuclear strike or initial massive air strike.



 
 

Calculations Performed by and in Support of Front Aviation Commander in Making the Decision and Preparing the Plan of Operations

There are many kinds of calculations required for making a scientifically substantiated decision and for developing a complete plan of air operations. Some are relatively simple comparisons of sets of data, and others require application of complex formulae. The following are some of the more important calculations:


Calculations about the Enemy

The enemy aerial assets are determined by totals and for each category of aircraft, that is, tactical, tactical-strategic, and strategic. The time they can interfere with friendly activities is calculated based on time and distance factors. The air staff has to calculate the timing to determine when, where, how, and how many aircraft can attack the front in the first-echelon (not including strategic reserves). The general estimate is that NATO will have about 400 aircraft in its first-echelon (that is, not including aircraft based in the theater rear or strategic reserves coming from the U.S.A.) available to attack each Warsaw Pact front. From this the air staff then calculates the attrition these enemy aircraft will inflict on friendly forces in each of the enemy massive strikes. The staff also calculates the attrition on the enemy from friendly air defense, friendly massive air operations, and friendly nuclear strikes.

In non-nuclear war the assumption is that the enemy will conduct massive air strikes in accordance with the intensity of the war, his concept of operations, and the strength of Warsaw Pact air defenses. In any case NATO would keep the principal part of its strategic aviation forces and one-third of other nuclear-capable tactical aircraft and aircraft carrier aircraft on nuclear alert, always ready to launch a nuclear strike. Therefore, on the first day of the NATO conventional air operation they would allocate the rest of the available aircraft to establish air superiority. The NATO air effort on the first day would have for its main targets Warsaw Pact air bases, airfields, air defense means (SAM's and fighters), radio-technical forces, command posts, etc. Only after this air superiority effort was completed would the air forces turn to support of ground operations. Then air efforts would be divided into three main categories of effort: support of ground forces 50%, interdiction of the combat action area 25%, and reconnaissance 25%.

From the assessment of the nature of NATO air operations on each day Soviet planners can proceed to make calculations on the kinds of targets and kinds of aircraft involved. This information in turn is used in the calculations on attrition for each side.


Enemy Troop Control

The air staff determines the locations of enemy troop control centers and guidance posts and calculates the friendly forces and means required to destroy and/or jam them.


Enemy Air Defense System

The air staff calculates the capabilities of the enemy air defense system in planning the selection of friendly penetration corridors. Among the factors considered in this determination are the mission, enemy strength and characteristics, geography, terrain, and meteorological conditions. The width of the penetration corridor is calculated based on the numbers of bombs and other weapons required to destroy sufficient air defense systems, the numbers of such munitions and delivery aircraft available, and the requirements for corridors developed in the plan for the massive strike. The role of radio-electronic warfare also plays a part in that the capabilities and characteristics of the jamming plan are related to the creation of the air corridor. The times for creation of the corridor and for keeping it open are carefully calculated so that enemy forces are destroyed, suppressed, or jammed at the optimum time for the passage of the strike aircraft (in a manner comparable to the use of artillery suppressive fire during the attack by tanks and infantry).


Resources of Front Aviation and the Distribution of Front Aviation Assets in Relation to Front Missions

The distribution requires a calculation of the correlation of troops and means, not only in aircraft but also in bombs, rockets, and nuclear weapons across the entire front line, for the width of the main attack and for other attack sectors. The correlation is calculated for the beginning of the operation, after the initial nuclear strike, at the end of the first day, at the end of the immediate missions of the armies, at the end of the immediate mission of the front, and at the end of the entire operation. The calculation generally uses a coefficient of availability of aircraft of 0.9 per day, and in addition factors for various levels of intensity are applied to the amount of attrition according to norms for nuclear and conventional war. The attrition calculation also depends on the assessment of the enemy capability to launch massive air nuclear strikes. The basic assumption is that the enemy can launch three massive air or nuclear strikes in the first one to two days with 60% of his forces active in the first air strike. Each strike in turn is divided into several echelons.

The procedure for distributing the front's air sorties to the armies and in turn to the divisions is a "top-down" method starting from the total number of air sorties allocated to the front by the commander in chief of the air forces (rather than a "bottom up" method starting with the number of sorties that might be required by the front based on some assessment of the number of targets). The typical front having two fighter-bomber divisions and one bomber division of three regiments each might have a total of 135 regimental sorties of fighter-bombers and 60 regimental sorties of bombers available for the 15 days of the operation. (Given that there will be 1.5 army air sorties per day on average). Of these the commander can't allocate more than perhaps two-thirds or 90 of the fighter-bomber sorties to the armies for the main attack in the immediate mission of seven to nine days (or 15 to 20 per army). The commander would plan to keep in his reserve an average of nine to 18 regimental sorties throughout the operation for use in daily contingencies. The commander does not let air sit idle and aims for the maximum use of air resources each day. Air sorties cannot be "saved" on one day for use on the next.

On the other hand, the assignment of numbers of attacking aircraft to individual targets is based on a detailed comparison of the nature and characteristics of the target to the capabilities and characteristics of the aircraft and the various weapons systems it carries. There are tables showing the norms for each type of aircraft and configuration of weapons in various situations. In addition such intangibles as level of training and relation to air defense are considered. There are also norms for the various target types, situations, terrain, and levels of required destruction. Units deployed for combat require more attacking aircraft than units on the march. For instance, a sortie by a squadron of 9-12 fully-loaded SU-7B aircraft can damage 10-15% of a mechanized battalion on the march and inflict a delay of 20-30 minutes. To destroy the battalion would require four to five times the number of aircraft.


Calculation on the Establishment of Air Cover

In this calculation the locations of the lines for interception of enemy aircraft are calculated based on ranges and flight times from interceptor airfields. The times for interception and the numbers of aircraft available when and where are calculated. The numbers of aircraft to be placed on air patrol and in first and second readiness status are determined. The locations and times for establishing combat air patrol are based on calculations of the directions and times of enemy attacks and the numbers and nature of the targets to be defended. The most important targets are the surface-to-surface rocket brigades, the main attack forces, command posts, and the rear services installations. All this is coordinated with the actions of the air defense rockets.

Air cover of the front is a part of a larger system established in the theater. The front calculations are based on the directive of the commander in chief of the air forces and the instructions of the commander in chief of national PVO and the general staff (especially when naval air is also involved). On the other hand, many of the details are not worked out by the front aviation staff but at a lower level, namely in the command post of fighter aircraft, which is a part of the air defense command system.

One of the most important and complex requirements involving calculations is maintaining air cover over the front as it moves, whether in an offensive or on the march. The front aviation fighters will require a number of intermediate airfields from which to fly. They will be re-based in a sequential, alternating manner. While some are re-basing they may be supplemented by aircraft from national PVO or the Warsaw Pact countries. When, where, and how many aircraft are needed must be calculated.


Initial Nuclear Strike

The number and type of nuclear bombs and rockets to be used in the initial nuclear strike, and the number and types of aircraft to deliver them are calculated based on the characteristics of the various weapons and platforms and the numbers available. There are always more targets than there are available weapons, so the calculation becomes a process of matching targets with weapons. For instance, if there are more short-range aircraft available (say, with ranges to 60 km) then more of the rockets will be assigned to deeper targets, but if there are more long-range bombers available, then they will take deeper targets, and the rockets can fire on closer targets.


Aerial Reconnaissance Capabilities and Requirements

Aerial reconnaissance is planned in coordination with the front reconnaissance plan. The numbers and types of aircraft are determined. There are norms based on their operating characteristics, such as radius of operation, loiter time, and the capabilities of sensors. The most important reconnaissance mission is the post-nuclear strike assessment of target damage and location of new targets. For this mission about 60% of the front's total assets are used.


Troop Control

The air staff calculates the numbers, locations, and times for movement and establishment for command posts.


Airfield Requirements

The general rule is that each aviation regiment requires two to three airfields for deployment. Of the total of all airfields in use in the front about 35% are permanent, main fields; 35% are deployment fields; and 30% are maneuver or alternate fields. Alternate airfields are defined as those that are required for establishing temporary groups of aircraft, for dispersion purposes, etc. In addition to airfields, wide areas along highways are used. (These are built in peacetime as part of the preparation of the theater of military operations.) Deceptive airfields are also required on the basis of the operational maskirovka plan. In general these will amount to one-third to one-half the number of permanent airfields built in peacetime. During the operation each aviation division has four to six active and two to three alternate airfields. The plan also establishes the airfields to be occupied during the move forward and whether these will be seized or built. The plan also indicates the limitation set by higher headquarters in that it will reserve some fields for its own use.


The Availability and Time Delivery of Aerial Bombs and Munitions

The information is shown in a table depicting the quantity of each munition on hand at the beginning of the operation, how much is delivered each day during the operation, how much is to be used at each stage, and the supply at the end of the operation. The expenditure is calculated in terms of unit of fire "boevoy komplect." A unit of fire for aerial munitions is the quantity of the munition carried in one aircraft load. The expenditure rates are established in the instructions given by the commander in chief of the air forces.


Movement of Aircraft from Permanent to Deployment Fields

This calculation is based on readiness times, movement times, distances, and preparation times at the new fields. The results of the calculations are shown in tables. One column lists the air divisions and regiments, the next column shows their present,(peacetime) locations, the next column shows their new airfield locations. The time to move from one field to the other, the earliest time to reach the new field, and the new readiness time are all shown in columns.

 
 
Figure 54 - TABLE OF MOVEMENT OF AVIATION UNITS TO DEPLOYMENT AIRFIELDS
Formations Present location Deployment airfield Distance Time to deploy Remarks
23rd FI Div
Div Hq and Spt
11 FI Regt
12 FI Regt
13 FI Regt
(Similarly for other units)
 
 

Developing the Plan of the Combat Action of Front Aviation

During the organization of the combat action of front aviation, the front aviation commander, after clarifying the mission and the decision of the front commander and instructions from higher headquarters, making a thorough assessment of the situation, and making his decision on the combat employment of the front aviation, instructs the staff to plan the action of front aviation.

On the basis of the front aviation commander's decision, the front aviation staff, led by the chief of staff, plans the front aviation operation on the map and prepares other required documents with instructions, documents, tables, diagrams, and required text. The plan is worked out in more detail and more elaboration for the first day of the operation, particularly for the initial nuclear strike and the initial massive strike on the enemy, the following elements are shown on the map in the graphic part of the plan:
- the situation and the character of operations of the enemy ground forces and main air grouping;
- the enemy's air force grouping (airfields, number and type of aircraft, possible flight directions for enemy operations, and likely actions of enemy against front forces and installations);
- distribution of enemy air forces against the targets, main targets of enemy strikes and their likely classification in terms of different altitudes and most likely direction of flight of air mobile forces);
- the location of nuclear rocket forces, nuclear depots, command posts, and also enemy air defense troops;
- operational disposition of front forces and their missions and boundary lines with adjacents and between armies;
- command posts of front armies and divisions in their departure areas and during the operation;
- grouping of air defense forces of front, armies, and adjacent armies;
- grouping of front aviation troops in the departure area, that is, the deployment of fighter, fighter-bomber, bomber, reconnaissance and transport aviation, and helicopters on airfields at the beginning and during the operation;
- areas of fighter aircraft on combat air patrol and lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from these areas; lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from positions where standby combat aircraft are on alert on their airfields;
- the front aviation command post and the combat troop control system of the front aviation at the beginning and during the operation;
- areas of friendly forces' radars and air defense rocket and artillery positions;
- areas for dropping airborne troops, direction of flight of airborne forces, and method of support during embarkation, during flight, during the drop, and during the landing operation.

In addition to these the staff prepares the following documents:
- graphic of the initial nuclear strike pertaining to the employment of the front aviation, to include targets, elements to destroy them, and the operational formation through the air defense, etc.;
- method of conduct of air operations, that is, graphic of the initial massive strike and air battles, to include targets, number of aircraft for each target - operational formation, and penetration through the air defense;
- covering of troops against enemy air strikes in cooperation with air defense forces;
- support of combined arms and tank armies during the operation;
- conduct of air reconnaissance.

The written instructions of the plan include the following details:
- assessment of enemy air and air defense forces;
- distribution of flights in support of combined arms and tank armies, and support of airborne, etc.;
- allocation of a number of nuclear and chemical bombs and their distribution between the initial nuclear strike, the immediate and subsequent missions of the front, and armies and reserves;
- combat composition of the front aviation;
- concept and tasks in the initial nuclear strike and air operation;
- other details.

The working documents reflect the following items:
- calculation of the time required for bringing air force troops to the state of full combat readiness and combat alert;
- measures of protection of troops and means from the impact of nuclear weapons;
- diagrams of warning, tables of coordination, tables of signal communication, etc.;
- in addition to this, other tables, diagrams, and graphics required for the operation are prepared.

The plan is signed by the front aviation commander and chief of staff and front chief of staff and is approved by the front commander.


Coordination of Offensive Action

Interaction is organized on the basis of the instructions of the front commander in order to coordinate in the most appropriate manner the efforts of front aviation with the combined arms and tank armies in terms of missions, times, and space in the offensive operation, and to organize the most effective interaction between them. Interaction regulates and harmonizes the actions of different elements during launching air strikes and provides for mutual identification. Interaction is organized by the commander and staff of front aviation, combined arms, and tank armies throughout the entire depth of the operation and during the accomplishment of important missions, such as:
- breakthrough of enemy defenses;
- initial nuclear strike;
- commitment of second-echelon forces;
- repelling the enemy counterblow;
- river crossing operation on wide rivers;
- launching of airborne and seaborne assault forces.

In addition, interaction of the front aviation is established with units and large units of rocket and artillery forces, air defense, radio-electronic jamming units, and others.

The important issues of interaction of front aviation are specified in the decision of the front aviation commander and these issues are also reflected in the plans of combat actions of front aviation.



The Main Issues of Interaction

During the establishment of interaction between front aviation and combined arms and tank armies the staff coordinates the following issues:
- distribution of nuclear rounds allocated to front aviation for different tasks;
- distribution of specified air sorties of front aviation among combined arms and tank armies;
- air reconnaissance tasks and methods for sending reconnaissance information to the headquarters of combined arms and tank armies;
- the method of calling for air support by ground forces;
- tasks on dropping or landing airborne troops and support of their combat action;
- method for seizure of enemy airfields by infantry and tank troops, support of the movement of airfield engineer units to those airfields, provision of assistance to them in restoring the seized airfields for own use, and provision of support for their defense;
- support of the movement of air armies' rear service units in the wake of attacking troops;
- cooperation and interaction during the accomplishment of important tasks such as penetration of enemy defenses, repelling counterblows, commitment of second-echelon troops, and other important missions;
- mutual identification, target definition, and signals.

The establishment of interaction between front aviation and rocket and artillery troops includes the following:
- targets and the time for launching attacks against them by nuclear-delivery means;
- suppression and destruction of enemy air defense targets in support of the flight of front aviation aircraft;
- conduct of air reconnaissance in support of rocket and artillery troops;
- providing flight security for aircraft in the firing zone of rocket and artillery troops;
- mutual identification and definition of targets.

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with air defense troops include the following:
- method of warning on the air situation;
- combat action areas of air defense rocket troops, air defense artillery units, and fighter aircraft of front aviation;
- area of fighter aircraft combat air patrol and lines of intercepting air targets;
- method of joint actions by fighter aircraft and air defense rocket and artillery units in one area;
- joint deployment and method of relocation and movement of guidance and target identification points in command posts of air defense rocket units;
- providing flight security for friendly aircraft in firing zones of air defense rocket and artillery units;
- coordination signals, mutual identification, and target definition.

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with radio-electronic jamming units include:
- designation of enemy targets to be jammed by radio and electronic suppression means of front and combined arms, tank, and air armies;
- coordination of the time of employment of radio-electronic suppression means of combined arms, tank, and air armies;
- coordination of measures on preventing friendly troop control means from being jammed by one another (mutual interference).



 
 

Participation of Front Aviation Staff in Planning Front Offensive Operations

Planning front offensive operations is conducted after the commander's decision has been made. It is a crucial phase of the preparation of an operation. In planning the offensive operation the following plans are prepared:
- plan of offensive operation of the front with annexes and instructions;
- initial nuclear strike;
- airborne assault action;
- air operation (if needed);
- employment of the front aviation in the front offensive;
- employment of rocket and artillery troops;
- front air defense;
- combat support measures (such as reconnaissance, deception, engineer, protection of troops against mass-destruction weapons, rear services, etc.);
- organization of command and control and signals;
- political affairs;
- other plans.

The front aviation commander and staff play a vital role in working out most of these tasks.


Planning the Initial Nuclear Strike

The front aviation actively participates in planning the initial nuclear strike. During the initial nuclear strike the destruction of small and mobile targets is normally allocated to front aviation, and details are worked out in this plan. During planning of the initial nuclear-strike the methods of destruction of known (located) enemy nuclear delivery means, air force troops, air defense means, command posts, and other targets located in the front's area are specified. The initial nuclear strike is launched against targets located in the front area up to the boundary of the strategic nuclear strike, which was 250 km from the front line. (This distance is determined by the range of operational rockets available in the front. Therefore, if the front now has organic rockets with the capability of hitting deeper targets, then the depth of this boundary line will be greater).

Planning for inflicting losses on the enemy targets is not limited to the initial strike, but is conducted during the operation as well. During the planning of the initial nuclear strike the calculation of the use of nuclear weapons is conducted for each target earmarked to be hit by front aviation. In this case the following points are specified:
- which unit and large unit will launch strikes against which targets;
- the center for each explosion;
- the number and yield of nuclear rounds and bombs for each target;
- the altitude of air bursts;
- the safety distance for friendly forces from the center of the nuclear explosion.

During the use of nuclear weapons and the conduct of the front initial nuclear strike, the main missions for front aviation are determined and the nuclear rounds and bombs are allocated and distributed in terms of front missions and the missions of the operational formations. The plan for the initial strike is worked out jointly by the front operations directorate in conjunction with the participation of the rocket and artillery staff and the front aviation staff under the direct control of the front chief of staff. The plan is prepared graphically on a map of 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scale with an annex of written instructions and also with graphics of the initial nuclear strike. The front aviation staff prepares the graphic of the initial nuclear strike for the operation of the front aviation during this phase of planning. This shows the targets, elements used against each target, and the operational formations to be used during the penetration of the enemy air defense area. The front aviation staff also prepares documents showing the distribution and allocation of nuclear and chemical bombs in terms of initial nuclear strike, immediate and subsequent missions of front and armies, and the number of nuclear weapons to be kept in reserve.


Planning the Air Operation

The air operation is normally conducted at the strategic level in the TVD, but sometimes it can be conducted at the front level. The aim of the air operation includes the following objectives:
- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel on the airfields;
- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel in aerial combat (battles and engagements);
- destruction of enemy striking naval aircraft in areas of combat maneuver and on their bases;
- destruction of enemy aircraft command, control and guidance system;
- destruction of nuclear bomb depots, POL depots, and ammunition and technical material depots;
- destruction and mining of runways, landing strips, and other installations on airfields.


Forces Participating in Air Operations

When air operations are conducted at the strategic level in the Western TVD the following forces may participate:
- aviation of three to four fronts;
- one to two strategic air corps;
- several strategic aviation divisions;
- naval air forces;
- Warsaw Pact national air forces;
- air defense forces of the fronts;
- national operational formations and large units of air defense.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the supreme high command decision and under the supervision of the general staff. The commander in chief of the air forces conducts troop control, interaction, and operations planning. The commanders of front air armies participate in the planning of this strategic operation.

When the air operation is conducted at the level of a single front the following troops participate:
- front aviation troops;
- front and army artillery and rocket troops;
- front and army air defense troops;
- radio-electronic warfare units.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the front commander's decision. They are planned by the operations directorate of the front with the participation of the chiefs and commanders of rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, radio-electronic warfare service as well as the staff of front aviation. Troop control and interaction in the operation are conducted by front aviation. Planning is worked out on a map of 1:200,000 or 1:500,000 scale with annexes containing written instructions.

The front aviation staff plans the method of conduct of the air operation on the basis of the front plan. It prepares the graphic for the initial massive strike and the aerial combat to include the targets, number of aircraft for each, operational formation and passage over enemy air defenses.



Combat Readiness of Front Aviation

In the air force troops, as in the other services of the armed forces, there are three states of combat readiness.


Constant Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness the personnel conduct their day-to-day training activities in accordance with designated programs. Units and sub-units are supplied up to the norms in terms of personnel, armament, and combat equipment. The aircraft are ready for combat employment, and the units are prepared for accomplishing combat missions.


Higher Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness personnel are brought to the state of permanent lodging on post, material supplies and ammunition are loaded on vehicles, and units are ready to deploy to new airfields. Combat-duty personnel are increased, and, if time permits, personnel continue their training activities.


Full Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness all units, large units, and command posts of aviation troops are brought to full combat readiness for the accomplishment of combat missions. This state of combat readiness can be initiated by combat alarm and will be conducted in the shortest possible time. In this state of combat readiness the front aviation's command and control organs occupy areas designated for them in advance. The forward command posts deploy, and the deputy front aviation commander with operational group moves to the front air defense command post for command and control of fighter aircraft.

Aviation regiments of all types of air force troops move to the deployment airfields, or they may remain at previous airfields and they are brought to state of readiness number one or one and two.

The movement of aviation troops to deployment airfields is not allowed in all conditions, because it will take 30 to 60 minutes to move one squadron from one airfield to another (including takeoff, flight, landing, and resupply). Therefore, sometimes it is better to accomplish urgent tasks from the permanent airfields and then land in deployment fields.

In state of preparedness number one for aircraft the entire air crew should not remain in the aircraft for more than one hour. Half of the air crew should be in the aircraft, and the other half should be stationed close to the aircraft, in readiness state number two.

Readiness number one. In this state the air crew is seated in the aircraft and, by receiving the signal from the regiment, can be airborne in eight to ten minutes.

Readiness number two. In this state the air crew is near the aircraft and, by receiving the signal from regiment, they can be airborne in 20 minutes.



 
 

Planning for an Airborne Assault Operation

Airborne assault operations are classified in terms of scale as strategic, operational, operational-tactical, tactical and special operations. In terms of forms they can be parachute assault, landing assault or combined.

The parachute airborne assault operations are launched by transport aircraft by dropping forces by parachute to conduct combat actions in the enemy rear and also to seize his airfields in order to provide for later landing of airborne assault units. The landing form of airborne assault is conducted by aircraft, helicopter and gliders on airfields and helicopter landing zones in the enemy rear. The strategic operation and operational airborne assault operation are mostly conducted by airborne large units and units, while tactical air assault operations are mostly launched by motorized rifle units and sub-units.



Strategic-operational Airborne Operations

Such operations are conducted by one or several airborne divisions supported by motorized rifle troops landed by aircraft in the objective area. Such operations are planned by the general staff with the participation of the commander in chief of the air force, and the airborne forces command. This is designated a "desant" operation. The forces participating in such operations include several transport aviation divisions, strategic aviation, up to one MRD, national air defense forces, naval forces, front air armies and front rocket, artillery, and air defense units. The missions of such operations are:
- seizure of political and administrative centers;
- destruction of state control systems;
- destruction of bases and groupings of enemy nuclear forces, which are hit by heavy nuclear strikes;
- seizure of vital economic areas, large islands, and archipelagos;
- support of resistance forces operating inside enemy territory by opening an internal front;
- assisting attacking front forces in accomplishing their missions;
- preventing the movement of enemy reserves;
- opening new fronts in new directions.

The depth of the landing in a strategic-operational airborne operation is 500-600 km or more.



Operational Airborne Assault Landings

Operational airborne assault operations may be conducted by an airborne division, and the depth of its landing in conventional war is 150-300 km (in nuclear war the depth may be 300-400 km). The planning and conduct of such operations is done by the front commander and staff with the participation and coordination of military transport aviation staffs and other services of the armed forces, as well as the commanders and chiefs of front combat and combat support arms. The missions of operational-level airborne assault operations are as follows:
- destruction of enemy mass-destruction weapons;
- seizure and destruction of nuclear rocket bases and nuclear depots and ammunition;
- support for a high-speed attack of front ground forces;
- cooperation in the envelopment and destruction of enemy groupings that are hit by nuclear strikes;
- prevention of enemy retreat and also the movement of enemy reserves;
- destruction of troop control systems;
- destruction of enemy rear services;
- seizure of crossing sites and assistance to front forces in crossing major water obstacles on the march.

The airborne assault units are dropped in a limited area. The division landing area can be 30 x 40 km. In order to drop an airborne division three to four military transport aviation divisions are required. Each transport aviation division has up to 130 aircraft. The airborne division can defend and conduct combat missions for six to seven days.


Operational-tactical Airborne Assault

The operational-tactical airborne assault is conducted by one airborne regiment or an airborne assault brigade. The depth of landing in conventional war is 100-150 km (in nuclear war it can be 250-300 km). Its missions are the following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons and nuclear and chemical weapons bases and depots;
- seizure of enemy airfields and air bases;
- seizure of command and control organs;
- destruction of enemy air defense means;
- seizure of bridges and bridgeheads on major rivers;
- seizure of mountain passes and critical terrain features;
- seizure of other important targets;
- seizure and maintenance of important lines and areas in the enemy rear (if the airborne assault is launched by an airborne assault brigade).
- provide for open flanks of army groupings;
- combat enemy reserves, airmobile troops, and enemy naval and airborne assault forces.

The high maneuverability of airborne assault brigades requires that they conduct their combat action in the air and on the ground in cooperation with the attacking forces and other elements of the front and army and launch their strikes by surprise. The employment of such brigades is normally conducted in the wake of nuclear strikes. Planning of operational- tactical airborne operations is conducted by front and army staffs with the participation of combat and combat support arms.



Tactical Airborne Assault

The tactical airborne assault is conducted by forces composed of a reinforced company and up to a motorized rifle regiment. They are mostly launched on the first day of the operation. The landing depth for a company or battalion is 15-20 km. For a regiment the depth may be 50-100 km. Its missions are the following:
- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons and depots;
- destruction and seizure of command posts;
- destruction of surviving enemy small groups;
- preventing the maneuver of enemy forces and means that have maintained combat capability;
- assistance for first-echelon forces in the seizure of road junctions and river crossing sites;
- assisting in the passage through radioactive contaminated areas and obstacles, primarily obstacles established by nuclear mines.

Planning of such operations is conducted by army or division staff, with participation by the chiefs and commanders of combat and combat support arms, particularly the front aviation staff.

In the instructions of the front, army, and division commanders airborne assault units are given the following:
- composition of airborne assault forces;
- areas, times, and means of dropping or landing;
- combat missions during operations in the enemy rear;
- method for launching nuclear and air strikes on targets and landing areas and in support of subsequent combat actions;
- method of interaction with air forces, air defense troops, and forces attacking from the front;
- departure areas, time for their occupation, and time of preparation for airborne assault;
- troop control.

The commander and staff of the front aviation, during their participation in the organizational phase of the airborne assault operation, conduct the necessary planning and work out the air cover and air support for the airborne assault forces. Their involvement in this process depends on the mission, responsibility and volume of the front aviation's participation in the given airborne operation. If the landing of airborne assault forces is conducted on a smaller scale by the front aviation transport, the planning is conducted by the front, army, or division staff responsible for the landing area. In this case the representatives of the front aviation staff work with those of the units and large units that interact during the operation. The necessary documents such as the decision of the transport aircraft commander, table of landing, calculation of flights for landing, etc., are prepared jointly. The plan for the operation is prepared in written form with a map annex, or it is prepared on the map with annexes of written instructions.



 
 

V. ORGANIZATION OF TROOP CONTROL OF FRONT AIR DEFENSE TROOPS AND MEANS


 
 

Troop control of air defense troops and means in a front offensive operation is organized to provide continuous troop control of air defense unit's actions and to direct their efforts toward the execution of their assigned air defense missions in offensive operation.

To control the combat actions of front air defense troops and resources, a mobile air defense command post is established, which is jointly deployed with the frontmain command post and is a part of front command post. The air defense command post includes the following elements: combat control center; reconnaissance and information center, which collects and organizes information about the enemy air force and warns the troops about enemy's air force actions; signal communication center, which establishes signal communication with air defense and fighter air force units, as well as with interacting large units (divisions). The components of the signal communication center include radio transmission center and radio reception center. Once the air defense command post is deployed, 24-hour tours of duty are established either by relieving duty officers in turns or by continuous duty (manning) of full organizational strength as the situation requires.

To provide further for action of air defense troop control, a number of staff officers and signal communication resources are detached from the main air defense command post to establish forward air defense command post. To provide and insure the command control of fighter aircraft, organic to front air army, and to insure coordination in air defense command post the following controlling elements are deployed:



 
 

Combat Control Center of Air Army's Fighter Units

Operational formations and large units of air defense deploy the following operational groups (teams) in front operation zone. (In maritime directions: naval air defense operational group (team)).
- in the air defense command post of the combined arms (tank) army: combat control center of air army as part of combat control center of air army.
- in the motorized infantry (tank) division command post: Air combat control group or team.
- in SAM regiment's command post: Navigation and target indication post.

Troop control of front air defense troops and resources is exercised by front commander. He personally works out the concept of operation of air defense units, specifies the allocation of air defense troops and resources to defend specified targets (objectives) and groupings of forces, assigns missions to them and specifies the method of coordination (interaction). Direct troop control of combat actions of air defense troops and resources, while repelling the enemy's air attacks, is conducted by chief of front's air defense forces.



Organization of Cover by Fighter Aircraft

The combat employment of fighter aircraft is planned jointly by the air army commander and the chief of front air defense on the basis of the decision of the front commander.

In this process the method of repelling massive strikes of the air enemy and particularly its initial strike are determined. Depending on the characteristics of the enemy strike and those of the grouping of friendly fighter aircraft, the interception line during aircraft commitment to combat, the composition of different echelons of aircraft, the interception line of the air enemy from air patrol positions, and the interception line from airfields; on each likely direction of enemy flight are determined and the number and areas of air patrols, the degree of combat readiness, and the method of maneuver are specified.

The first line of commitment of fighter aircraft into combat from air patrol positions can be forward of the front line. The subsequent lines of commitment to combat are specified behind the first line at a distance to provide a sufficient area to fight against the enemy air until it reaches the fire area of air defense means. If such conditions cannot be provided the action of fighter aircraft in the area of the air defense rockets with their interaction or between the areas of action of the air defense rockets or in the rear of these areas is provided for.

The combat action of fighter aircraft in the course of the operation is organized by specifying the combat action areas for fighter aviation divisions. The number of such areas depends on the number of fighter aviation divisions in the front air army.



 
 

Organization of Troop Control and Interaction

The control of air defense troops and means in front offensive operations is conducted to exercise constant control over the action of the troops and to direct their efforts in support of the accomplishment of assigned air defense missions in the offensive operation.

For troop control of air defense forces, the air defense command post is established, which is mobile and always with the front main command post and considered as an integral part of it. The air defense command post includes the following elements:
- combat control center;
- center of collection and analysis of reconnaissance information and warning of the troops;
- signal center, composed of receiving and transmitting radios.

In the air defense command post a 24-hour duty service is conducted by alternate duty teams or by full combat staff. In order to provide for constant air defense troop control, the required number of personnel with communications means from the air defense command post is detached to establish a forward air defense command post.

To control the action of the fighter aircraft a combat control center for the air army fighter aircraft and also operational groups of air defense operational formations and formations operating in the area are established in the air defense command post. The following elements are established:
- a combat control center of the air army is established in the air defense command post of the combined arms and tank armies;
- a group for combat control of the air is established in the command posts of the infantry and tank divisions;
- guidance and target identification points are established with the command posts of the air defense rocket units.

Control of front air defense troops is conducted by the front commander. He personally establishes the concept of the air defense, determines the troops and means for each objective, issues tasks, and establishes interaction.

The direct control of air defense troops while repelling enemy attacks is conducted by the chief of front air defense.



Interaction of Front Air Defense Troops with Other Air Defense Troops and Means

Interaction of air defense is established at the front level and it is aimed at the most effective use of the combat capability of the air defense to totally destroy enemy air targets on the axis of approach to friendly troops and to cover installations.

Interaction is a concerted and continuous effort of air defense means coordinated in terms of objectives, time, place, and the forms of accomplishment of combat missions.



Interaction between Air Defense Rocket Units and Fighter Aircraft

Interaction is established separately in their own areas and jointly in their areas of common action. While interacting in their separate areas, the fighter aircraft operate in front of, in the intervals between, at the flanks, or at the rear of the areas of combat action of the air defense rocket units. In this form of action the question of security of fighter aircraft is not present. This form of interaction is easy and the tasks to repel the enemy attack are more clear.

While interacting in a common area (the area of the action of air defense rockets) the efforts of fighter aircraft and air defense rockets are divided in terms of different altitudes, directions sectors), lines, and targets.

The decision about where the interaction should be conducted and what forms it should take in the common area is made in the air defense command post of the front (army), normally by the beginning of actions to repel enemy sorties and after the assessment of the characteristics of their flight.

The chief of front air defense, along with the air army commander, during organization of interaction between air defense troops and fighter aircraft, determines the following points:
- the form of combat action of fighter aircraft in different phases of the operation;
- the method of exchange of reconnaissance information on the air enemy;
- adjustment of the combat action area of rocket troops and fighter aviation, the area of patrolling in the air, the interception lines of enemy targets from air patrol positions and from the airfield positions;
- the method of combat of fighter aircraft during repelling enemy first massive strike and also the action of fighter aircraft and rocket troops in one area;
- the action of air defense means and fighter aircraft to cover airborne assault units in their assembly areas, embarkation areas, during their flight, and landing and in the course of their combat action, and the measures to coordinate the actions of air defense means and fighter aircraft;
- the flight corridors of fighter aircraft;
- the method of relocation of air defense troops and fighter aircraft and their maneuver in the course of the operation which should be readjusted during the conduct of the operation.



Interaction of Front Air Defense Troops with the Air Defense Operational Formations and Formations of Border Forces

In establishing interaction between them the following issues are organized:
- coordinating the action of air defense troops and means which are assigned to cover the front troops and departure areas and in the attack zone and the method of their action;
- determining possible maneuver of these troops in support of the front and the organization of the action of front air defense troops on the most important lines in the attack zone and their relocation and also specifying the interception line for fighter aviation;
- resolving the question related to organization of the air defense of front supply routes after the advance of the troops, method of expanding the air defense system in the wake of the front attacking troops, composition of operational groups and method of air attachment to coordinating headquarters;
- specifying the method of employment of air defense radar system in the interest of the front;
- planning the combat action during combined operations (seaborne and airborne assault operations) (note: the control of air defense troops allocated for combined operations is conducted by the front commander and direct control of air defense troops is exercised by air defense troop commanders and air defense chiefs of the front and army);
- specifying the method of interaction between air defense troops and front fighter aircraft with the air defense troops and fighter aircraft of operational formations and formations;
- determining the unified system of identification of friendly aircraft.



Method of Interaction between Front Air Defense Troops and the Air Defense Troops of Adjacent Fronts

In coordinating the action of air defense troops of the front with air defense troops of adjacents the following points are specified:
- method of mutual warning about the enemy;
- composition of those fighter aircraft troops which are assigned to operate in the area of adjacent fronts and the method for calling them;
- the airfields designated for landing of those fighter aircraft which operate in the area of the adjacent front and their rear service support;
- the method of flight of the fighter aircraft in the area of air defense rocket troops and measures related to the questions of their security;
- coordinating the position areas of air defense rocket troops of the front (army) to establish a reliable air defense on the common flanks.

 
 

VI. THE ROLE, COMPOSITION, TASKS, AND PRINCIPLES OF COMBAT EMPLOYMENT OF ARTILLERY IN THE FRONT'S OFFENSIVE OPERATION


 
 

General Principles

Modern artillery is characterized by heavy firepower, long range, accuracy of fire, wide maneuvering power, massive and concentrated fire capability, and the power to deliver surprise fire strikes in a short time to a great depth. The artillery is capable of destroying various types of exposed, covered, moving, static, observable, and non-observable targets on the ground and on water surfaces. Modern artillery has a high rate of fire that enables it to produce the desired and required density of fire. The great maneuverability of modern artillery allows the quick and concealed concentration of large masses of artillery on decisive axes. The artillery is well prepared to open surprise fire on enemy targets.

The role and importance of artillery may change in accordance with the nature of combat operations and the use of nuclear rockets. In a nuclear war the artillery, within its range and capabilities, supplements nuclear rocket strikes. Targets not engaged by nuclear weapons or not sufficiently engaged by them, and also targets located close to the line of contact with the enemy, are destroyed by the artillery. Therefore, in nuclear war, the artillery remains as a close support weapon of the attacking troops.

In operations without the employment of nuclear weapons, the significance of artillery is greatly increased, since it constitutes the main fire power of the ground forces.

The combat composition of the front artillery is determined by the organic artillery of the front's operational formations (armies) and large units (divisions) and also by the supreme command's artillery attached to the front.

The number and type of artillery units attached to the front is determined by the armed forces' general staff in peacetime on the basis of missions to be assigned to the front in the operation, the composition and the nature of actions of likely groupings of the enemy, and the types of weapons employed in the operation (nuclear or conventional.)

The reinforcement of the front by artillery troops in offensive operations without the employment of nuclear weapons should insure the accomplishment of the main artillery tasks in breaking through the enemy's prepared defense, in its main (forward) defensive area, or in the operational depth of the enemy's territory, which requires that the artillery should carry out a wide number of tasks to destroy enemy targets within range. A modern front, composed of three to four combined arms armies, one to two tank armies, and five to seven reserve divisions, and reinforced by three artillery divisions and two antitank artillery brigades, may have up to 5,000 guns, mortars, and rocket artillery systems, as well as 700 antitank guns and about 2,000 antitank guided rockets.



 
 

Artillery Missions

Artillery has the following missions:
- supporting the deployment of the army's first-echelon divisions (large units);
- supporting the organized advance of attacking elements through the enemy's covering area;
- destruction of the enemy in meeting engagements;
- supporting the breakthrough of the enemy's prepared defensive positions;
- supporting the front's troops in assault river-crossing operations;
- participating in repelling the enemy's counterattacks;
- supporting the commitment of the armies' and front's second-echelon troops in to combat;
- providing favorable conditions for the destruction of encircled groupings of the enemy;
- consolidating seized objectives (areas);
- repelling the enemy's aggression and destroying enemy troops that have penetrated into friendly territory.



 
 

Principles of Artillery Employment

The main principles of the employment of artillery in the front's offensive operation are as follows:
- mass employment of artillery on the main axes of the front's attack;
- close coordination with infantry, tanks, and air forces;
- constant support of attacking troops by fire;
- effective and continuous control of fire and maneuver.

The experiences of World War II suggest that fire superiority over the enemy on important axes is a necessary condition for achieving success in combat operations conducted in conventional war. Fire superiority can be achieved only through a large concentration of fire power, primarily of artillery and the air forces. Fire superiority means destruction and neutralization of the enemy's destructive means, which can crush friendly infantry and tanks. The more thoroughly this task is accomplished, the more friendly casualties decrease. In modern conditions fire superiority is one of the most important factors in achieving victory. The enemy artillery is self-propelled, armor-protected, and has great maneuverability, which means that it can move rapidly and can relocate in a short period of time. Fighting such artillery requires sufficient artillery units and enormous expenditures of ammunition. The modern enemy defense is supported by a large number of tanks, self-propelled guns, infantry fighting vehicles, and antitank guided rockets, which have great maneuver capabilities. Moreover, modern engineer works and fortifications enhance the strength of the enemy's defense. By employing new engineering vehicles and means, the enemy can dig in rapidly and can emplace its weapons and its personnel in fortified positions, the destruction of which requires a large number of artillery units and plenty of ammunition.



 
 

Planning Artillery Fire

Planning the combat employment of artillery includes the following:
- determining the requirement of first-echelon armies in supporting artillery;
- allocation of supreme command artillery to front elements;
- organization for the movement of artillery to cover the deployment of the front's main grouping of troops, to repel likely enemy aggression, and to support the initiation of attack by friendly forces;
- organization of the artillery's action during the accomplishment of the mission of the front troops;
- determination of possible missions and the method of movement of the front's antitank reserve;
- supplying the front's operational formations (armies) with ammunition and weapons.

The artillery requirement of the front is determined by the requirements of first-echelon armies and the number of artillery units required to established the front's antitank reserve. Detailed discussion of the methods for determining artillery requirements is in Chapter Six, together with sample exercises and calculations.

The bulk of the artillery required will be needed to break through the enemy's prepared defense, particularly its forward defensive area, which is reinforced by a large number of weapons and which is strengthened by engineer works and fortifications. In this case, the artillery will have to accomplish a wide range of tasks connected with the simultaneous destruction and neutralization of enemy targets located within range.

To determine the requirement of the armies in artillery in each army's zone, the number of targets located in the enemy's forward defensive area that are to be destroyed simultaneously during the preparatory fire should be calculated, and then the number of such targets that will be engaged by the air forces should be deducted from the whole sum. For the destruction of remaining targets, the required number of artillery units is determined on the basis of norms defined for neutralizing typical targets.

Further, the number of the army's artillery pieces participating in the preparatory fire are deducted from the number determined by the above-mentioned calculations. The balance will be the number of artillery pieces the army should be reinforced with.

The total requirement of the armies in artillery will constitute the requirement of the front for the same. The second-echelon army is reinforced by artillery when it is committed into combat, in this case, by the commitment of a number of the supreme command's artillery that had been attached to first-echelon armies but is detached from them and placed under the command of the newly-committed second-echelon army. Therefore, the requirement of a second-echelon army in artillery is not considered in calculating the front's total requirement in artillery.

In the absence of concrete information about enemy targets, or in peacetime, the amount of required artillery in a front is calculated on the basis of 20-25 km of front, which is the width of an enemy division's defensive area. Across such a frontage, 90-100 pieces of artillery per kilometer of front, (against Dutch divisions) or 100-120 pieces per one kilometer of front (against US divisions) is considered as the required number of artillery pieces for the army (20-25 km X 90-100 or 100-120). In the penetration area, not only the artillery units of the divisions actually conducting the penetration are employed, but also the army's artillery, and in favorable conditions, even the artillery of the second-echelon army as well.

The employment of the second-echelon army in preparatory fire is not desirable, since after the preparatory fire, their return journey to a distance of 200-300 km is very difficult. The employment of artillery units of other first-echelon divisions operating elsewhere should also be avoided, because by employing them, their parent divisions remain without artillery and maneuver across the front is not easy in combat situations. In some cases only the rocket artillery (BM-21) of the divisions operating on the flanks of the penetration area can be employed, since they are considered mobile artillery units.

For the penetration of the enemy's defense by two divisions on seven to eight kilometers of frontage 700-800 guns and mortars are required. Therefore, if three armies operate as the front's first-echelon forces, then 2,100-2,400 guns and mortars will be required.

The following number of artillery pieces will be available in the penetration area by counting the army's organic artillery:
- organic artillery units of two first-echelon motorized rifle divisions: 126 + 126=252 pieces
- army artillery brigade=72 pieces;
- second-echelon division's artillery regiment and rocket artillery battalion:=72 pieces;
- Total=396 pieces.

Therefore the army should be reinforced via attachments with 300-400 additional guns and mortars, or one-and-a-half artillery divisions (one artillery division and 246 guns and mortars).

The front requirement in artillery is calculated by adding up the armies' requirements. The required number of artillery can be decreased to some extent by prolongation of the preparatory fire, the employment of larger numbers of aircraft and tanks, and decreasing the frontage of the penetration area. The front should have sufficient numbers of artillery units in its composition to allow it to successfully accomplish its assigned missions.

To establish antitank reserves in the front and in first-echelon armies along axes threatened by enemy tanks, two to three of the supreme command's antitank brigades are required. One to two such brigades will establish the front's antitank reserve which can cover, in cooperation with the army's first-echelon large units, an area 15-30 km wide against enemy tanks, can repel the counterattack of one to two enemy armored divisions, or can reestablish the antitank reserves for one to two armies that have exhausted their own antitank reserves. The distribution of artillery and the establishment of its grouping are effected in accordance with the concept and the conditions of conducting a front's offensive operation.

The front establishes only an antitank reserve. This includes one to two antitank brigades, as well as some tank and engineer units. The first-echelon army should be reinforced by one artillery division, and when operating along tank-threatened axes, it should also be reinforced by two to three antitank battalions.

The tank army is primarily reinforced by long-range artillery. But if the tank army has organic army artillery, then it is reinforced by rocket artillery units.

In armies and divisions the artillery grouping is organized by organic and attached artillery in accordance with their missions and the nature of their operation. Efforts should be made to insure freedom of action of divisions and regiments in accomplishing their assigned missions. Divisions in the main attack should each be reinforced by four to five artillery battalions and other divisions by one to three artillery battalions each.

In order to provide the army commander with a separate artillery grouping to influence the course of the operation, particularly when two armies are conducting penetrations adjoining flanks, the army's artillery group is composed of four to five long-range artillery battalions. Such groups support the actions of the divisions, particularly those in the main attack.

The basic tasks of the army's artillery group are:
- destruction of the enemy's nuclear delivery means;
- destruction of its artillery and its immediate reserves;
- destruction of supporting divisions in the main attack directions.

When an army operates on a wide front, the establishment or maintenance of an army artillery group is not desirable; in this case the artillery units normally included in the group are allocated to first- or second-echelon divisions. The antitank reserves are established from front level down to regimental level.

The regimental artillery group is composed of three to four artillery battalions. It is employed to support the regiment directly, to fight enemy mortars, and sometimes to destroy enemy artillery. Part of it can be assigned as support artillery to first-echelon battalions and might be placed under their command after the seizure of the enemy's battalion defensive areas.

The division artillery group is composed of four to six artillery battalions, mainly rocket artillery. It is employed to fight the enemy's nuclear delivery means, to destroy its artillery and reserves, and also to reinforce regimental artillery groups. A number of artillery battalions from the division artillery are assigned to support first-echelon regiments.

Artillery groups in second-echelon divisions and regiments are established only when they are committed into combat. The army's artillery group is composed of eight to ten artillery battalions. It is employed to fight enemy nuclear delivery means, its artillery, to destroy enemy reserves, to interrupt the enemy's command and control system, and to reinforce first-echelon divisions. The army artillery group can be divided into subgroups, the number of which is determined by the number of divisions operating in the main attack.




 
 

VII. ACTIONS OF FRONT STAFF AND TROOP CONTROL ORGANS DURING CONDUCT OF OPERATIONS


 
 

Offensive operations begin either with the use of nuclear weapons or without their use. Before the beginning of the war there is the period of threat of war, during which the forces are brought to the higher combat readiness and after that to the level of full combat readiness. It is possible that the war would begin suddenly without a period of tension threat of war or the period of threat might be very brief. The commander and staff organize their work on control of the forces depending on the above stated conditions. During the offensive the basic mission of the troop control organs of the front are the following:
- strengthen the high political morale spirit of the forces and insure the combat effectiveness of the forces and combat readiness not only for fulfilling assigned missions but also to fulfill missions which may come up quickly by surprise.
- obtain current information on the situation, study and analysis of the data and in response to this make timely decisions, make more precise and specific the missions and issue new missions;
- make the operations plan more precise;
- organize constant interaction and all-around combat support for the forces;
- monitor accomplishment of assigned missions and offer assistance to the subordinates.

During the operation the enemy may strike the signal communication and troop control system with his radio-electronic combat means. To counter this the commander and staff and chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services before hand take the required measures on securing the viability of the means of communication and troop control and take measures for quickly restoring them after enemy attack. Then they maneuver signal means which are not struck by the enemy to the most important axes. The capability for protection of radio-electronic means is made possible by use of radio-technical maskirovka. Reconnaissance must obtain required data on the enemy radio-electronic combat means and this information must by sent to the units and forces which participate in the radio-electronic combat.



 
 

Combat Readiness

The troop control organs reach the level of full combat readiness either from the status of constant combat readiness or from the level of higher combat readiness. The front troop control organs are brought to full combat readiness on the basis of the alarm and special signal or in response to a direct order. The following measures are taken to bring the field troop control organs to full combat readiness:
- notifying troop control personnel and support and security units on the sounding of the alarm;
- assembling the personnel at the work locations at the permanent garrison and issuing weapons and equipment;
- placing the personnel and supplies on transportation means according to the command posts they will go to;
- sending them to the assembly areas in the concentration areas and the prepared command points;
- communicating with subordinate and adjacent forces from the new command posts;
- organizing security, protection, and defense of the new command posts;
- with the issuing of the combat alarm organizing commandant's service and movement regulation posts, strengthening reconnaissance, deploying forces and means of radio- electronic combat, setting up the system for determining locations of nuclear bursts, also strengthening ground and aerial reconnaissance and activating the networks of agent and clandestine reconnaissance, and exactly fulfilling the missions of space reconnaissance.

The operations duty officer on receipt of the signal of combat alarm reports to the front commander, chief of staff, member of the military council, and chief of operations directorate. At that time the deputy operations duty officer with use of the automatic system of signals alerts subordinate forces. Officers of the staff and directorates who arrive at the work places quickly receive their weapons and chemical warfare defense equipment and issue the required orders to their subordinate units and departments and assemble on the transportation. The transport means of the defense regiment on receipt of the signal assemble at the collection point and take their places in the planned convoys. The front commander, when he is sure that all forces have received the signal alarm, goes to the protected command post or the concentration area and takes control of the subordinate forces (organizes movement and deployment of subordinate forces to the FUP areas for the offensive). The chief of staff reports to the general staff or staff of the TVD and goes to the protected command post or concentration area. If an operational group was not already sent to the field command posts, this group together with signal units and defense and service units is sent to the command, forward, and rear service posts. The staff personnel are assigned to each command post in three echelons. The chief of staff and chiefs of combat arms and special troops arrive at the command posts by helicopter. When the personnel arrive at their command posts, they quickly organize their locations and begin their work. On the arrival of the staff at the new command post the chief of staff again reports to the general staff or staff of the TVD.

(See discussion of army measures in response to alarm in Chapter Three for details of the actions of individual staff officers. They vary only slightly with the level of command between army and front.)



 
 

Troop Control at the Beginning of the Operation:

The front commander conducts troop control of front forces at the beginning of the operation from the front command post. During the conduct of an enemy initial nuclear strike or initial air strike, the front commander may locate himself at the PVO command post. The staff alerts rear service installations and forces about the coming enemy air strikes or nuclear strikes and takes measures on locating nuclear bursts and for liquidating the results of nuclear strikes. On the basis of situation data the front commander makes his decision more precise and issues missions to subordinate forces. The chief of staff passes the commander's instructions and orders to subordinates and establishes new reconnaissance aims and missions. The chief of reconnaissance reenforces the reconnaissance means and concentrates them on determining the enemy's main groupings and his concept of operation. The chief of reconnaissance designates the reconnaissance forces, targets, missions, and time for reporting information on the basis of the commander's and chief of staff's instructions. He issues missions to the reconnaissance forces and collects and analyses reconnaissance data. He quickly reports the most important information to the commander and chief of staff. Also he informs the chiefs of staff directorates, and chiefs of combat arms and special troops. The report information collection center quickly informs the field troop control organs, staffs of interacting forces, and adjacents on new enemy forces and means, sudden changes in the situation, and new decisions of the front commander. The front reports to the higher staff on the situation by technical channels and means and sends reports and written summaries.

The reports are classified as combat, combat reconnaissance, signal, rear service, engineer, chemical, and others. Reports are periodic and non-periodic. The summaries are operational, reconnaissance, signal, rear service, and others. The summaries are only periodic. The periodic reports and summaries are sent at the appointed times which are designated by the higher staff. The non-periodic and hasty reports are sent in accordance with the situation and at the initiative of the front staff or in answer to request from the higher staff.



\First Nuclear Strike

The front conducts the first nuclear strike on the basis of the designated signal of the general staff. The front staff observes constantly the targets for the initial nuclear strike. Targets for which they have confirmed reconnaissance data are not rechecked. However, some targets do require re-reconnaissance. The front commander shifts nuclear strikes from targets about which they do not have sufficient reliable reconnaissance data and places the weapons against the targets for which there is reliable data. These changes are made in the plan for the initial strike and issued to the firing units. The front commander gives the command (signal for launch or take-off of aviation). On receipt of this command the chief of front staff organizes post-strike damage assessment (re-reconnaissance) of the targets and the operations directorate collects the data on the first nuclear strike. The radio-electronic combat SPETZNAZ forces suppress enemy signal nets for control of nuclear weapons, warning system, control system for racket units and aviation, and PVO system. The radio- technical units SPETZNAZ suppress enemy radio-electronic systems of aircraft. As a result of the front massive use of nuclear weapons, a very complex situation develops. In this situation the most important missions of the troop control are the following:
- collect and evaluate information on the front nuclear strike and the results of enemy nuclear means;
- designate and conduct measures for liquidation of the results of enemy nuclear weapons and restore the forces' combat effectiveness;
- make a decision on development of the offensive and issue missions to subordinates;
- make the missions on interaction more detailed and restore the systems of combat support and rear service.

The collection of situation data and estimate of the situation is organized for the chief of staff by the chief of operations directorate, chief of reconnaissance, and chiefs of combat arms, special troops, and services and chief of rear services. Data that is received from various sources may vary, it must be checked and confirmed. They also receive data on the condition of locations, which were damaged by nuclear strikes, and what changes took place there, and areas that were contaminated by nuclear radiation. The operations directorate issues correct and detailed data to the chiefs of special services and subordinates. They report the results to the commander and chief of staff. Also the chief of staff prepares his suggestions on the situation to the commander. The front commander makes a new decision in accordance with the situation and issues corresponding instructions. In accordance with the commander's decision and his orders the front staff with staffs of air army, rocket forces and artillery, engineer forces, and chemical forces organize the plan for restoring combat effectiveness and liquidation of results of nuclear weapons. In this are included the following activities and measures:
- decide measures on restoring destroyed control systems of operational formations and forces;
- remove formations and units from destroyed areas and fires in order to continue their designated missions;
- conduct rescue work in centers of destruction and remove personnel from these areas;
- perform special decontamination of personnel, degassing, and disinfection of combat equipment, weapons, and materials;
- take measures on cleaning roads and routes and exits from damage centers;
- liquidate fires and obstacles;

Restoring destroyed control is supported by means of shifting control to new command posts that were not destroyed, with use of reserve signal means, to the airborne command post, and by shifting control to a command post of a subordinate army.



Conduct of Offensive without use of Nuclear Weapons

The following are the most important missions of the commander ,staff, and organs of troop control:
- determine enemy groupings of forces, concept of operation, and axis of main attack and the region for the main concentration of enemy forces;
- determinate the means and sequence for destruction of enemy groupings;
- organize suppression of the opposing enemy grouping and its reserves by fire;
- conduct control of deployment and going over onto the offensive and front actions during destruction of the enemy covering force;
- support organized crossing of the first-echelon forces into engagement with the aim of destruction of opposing enemy forces;

The front commander must designate measures for development and reenforcement of first-echelon forces and organize in detail questions of interaction. The commander personally, or by means of his staff, clarifies the mission for destruction of the enemy, crossing of forces over the state border, and conduct of offensive actions in enemy territory. In accordance with the character of enemy actions the commander designates the form and sequence of destruction (in meeting engagement, breakthrough of prepared defense from the march, or after a short preparation period or other). In accordance with this the staff issues missions to subordinates, organizes interaction, and controls issued missions. During the offensive the front commander at various stages must control the forces from the forward command point in accordance with the missions and the situation. In some conditions he may go to the command posts of subordinate armies.

The staff insures that conditions exist to enable the commander to control the forces from any command post. Therefore they must organize communications for the commander from any control point A small group of officers with required documents and signal means accompanies the commander. During the operation control in most cases is conducted by personal contact and signal and by use of the subordinates' signal means by the commander and staff. The commander and staff must be conducted personal conversations using the secret automatic signal system or conversation tables. Also, they send staff officers by helicopter to deliver orders, monitor, and offer assistance.



 
 

Staff Actions During a Meeting Engagement

In a meeting engagement, as a rule, the time for control of combat actions is limited. The combat situation quickly changes as the two sides come into contact in the area of combat actions. The front staff must observe the enemy moving forces. The chief of staff issues instructions to the chief of reconnaissance on obtaining reconnaissance data.

The chief of reconnaissance takes the following actions:
- designates the forces' missions, and time for receipt of data;
- quickly receives data on the enemy by means of agent reconnaissance, reconnaissance aviation, radio and radio-technical reconnaissance, space reconnaissance, and designates the following: composition of enemy forces, axis of movement, possible concept of actions, (conduct of counter strike) lines of possible deployment.

Data on the enemy is marked on the commander's and chief of staff's maps and entered into tables and wall charts for reference.

The chief of operations directorate takes the following actions:
- with other chiefs he receives information on his own forces, rocket forces and artillery, aviation, reserves, forces of first and second-echelon, roads, crossings, regions of destruction and contamination;
- marks this information on the chief of staff's and commander's maps and tables in the control center;
- in accordance with the instructions of the chief of staff the operations directorate and reconnaissance directorate make calculations on the lines of possible meeting with enemy, correlation of forces and means, best groupings for forces, axes of strikes, distance of maneuvers of forces and means, and other issues.

The chief of staff makes general conclusions on the situation and recommendations about decisions for the meeting engagement and reports to the front commander. The front commander in accordance with the situation and recommendations of chief of staff makes his decision on the meeting engagement. The operations directorate in accordance with the decision shows the missions on the maps. The commander or chief of staff issue combat missions for the forces orally or by short combat instructions using signal means. The staff and chiefs of combat arms and special troops, organize the force grouping, and all-around combat support. The front commander organizes interaction during the operation or, after stating the combat missions, he issues brief instruction on organizing interaction. The staff and troop control organs monitor the issued missions and offer assistance to subordinates and staffs.

The front commander controls troops during meeting engagements from the command post, forward command post, or from the forward command post of a subordinate army.



 
 

Staff Actions During Breakthrough of Prepared Defense

If and when the main forces meet with an enemy prepared defense, the commander and staff determine that they must break through this. At first they establish how much the enemy is prepared for defense and take measures to weaken enemy organized conduct of defense. They direct the reenforcement of front forces to force the breakthrough from the march.

The chief of staff requests from the chief of reconnaissance the latest data on the enemy defense, preparation for defense from point of view of engineer obstacles, composition of defending forces and concept of enemy actions.

At the outset of the offensive the chief of reconnaissance organizes reconnaissance on the enemy defenses; designates forces and means, missions, and times for reports; and issues combat missions to reconnaissance forces to determine the following:
- lines and positions of enemy defense, level of engineer preparation and engineer obstacles, demolition, mine fields for tank and antipersonnel, operational layout (formation), strong points at forward edge and in depth, positions of artillery and mortars, positions of nuclear weapons, command posts, distribution of reserves and second-echelons, concept of action, axis of attacks and strikes and counter-attacks, possible capabilities during counter-attacks and counter-strikes and repelling our attack, and strong and weak points of enemy defense.

The chief of operations directorate determines; the actions of attacking forces, grouping, their condition during arrival at the enemy defense, correlation of forces and means on entire front and on each axis, density of forces in the breakthrough area, maneuver of forces during the breakthrough and development of offensive in the depth, accurate calculations about the results of attacks on defense by rocket, artillery and PVO forces.

The chief of rocket troops and artillery determines: the width of the breakthrough sector for each army; density of artillery in the breakthrough sectors; how much artillery is required for the breakthrough sectors; artillery units that participate in the preparatory fire; movement of artillery into firing positions; reconnaissance and preparation of artillery for firing; start and conclusion of preparatory fire; duration of preparatory fire; action of artillery during conduct of preparatory fire, support fire, and accompanying fire; artillery cover of flanks, gaps, and breaks; resupply of artillery ammunition for preparatory fire and its delivery; accurate calculations on suppression by rocket forces and artillery.

The air army commander determines: calculation of requirements for aviation support in breakthrough sector; reconnaissance of targets; time for start and conclusion of aviation support; targets that are to be struck during the air preparation; aviation preparation, support, and accompanying; calculation on capabilities of aviation during breakthrough and during the operation; cover of main front forces in breakthrough sector from enemy strikes.

The chief of air defense determines: cover of strike groupings of front, airfields, rocket forces and artillery, command posts, and rear service targets from enemy air strikes; and conduct of reconnaissance and warning of forces on enemy air strikes,

The chief of engineer forces determines: reconnaissance of enemy positions, engineer obstacles, defense systems, and mine fields; engineer support of forces of first-echelon armies during breakthrough of defense and during development of offensive in the depth; reenforcement of armies with engineer forces with aim of successfully breaking through the defense; operational maskirovka of front forces in the breakthrough sector; preparation and development of column routes and evacuation routes during the operation; liquidation of results of enemy use of mass-destruction weapons; and restoration of combat effectiveness.

As the forces are moving to the enemy defense, the chief of staff reports the result of his estimate of the situation and recommendations for the decision to the commander. As part of his estimate of the enemy situation he includes the following:
- trace of the defense line and of enemy positions and their level of engineer preparation;
- areas of mine fields and other natural obstacles;
- layout of operational formation;
- locations of first-echelon brigades, second-echelon, reserves, numbers of divisions and corps, positions of nuclear weapons, command posts of division, corps, and army group, positions of artillery especially atomic artillery, airfields, control points for aviation, positions of air defense, and other command points;
- possible enemy concept of operation, axis of counter-blows, forces that could participate in these counter-blows, lines for deployment of counter-attack forces, enemy combat power in counter-blow, and other;
- best area for making the breakthrough.

As part of his suggestions for the decision he includes:
- methods for making approach march through enemy covering force area to enemy positions, methods for reenforcing the forces in the break through area, time for start of movement, and time for the attack;
- breakthrough area, area for artillery firing positions, methods for movement of artillery to occupy positions, conduct of artillery reconnaissance and preparation to fire, time for artillery to move and occupy positions, time for preparation of preparatory fire, in general the targets for artillery preparatory fire, time for start and finish of preparatory fire, and quantity of ammunition for preparatory fire;
- targets for aerial preparatory fire and time of its start and conclusion;
- cover against enemy air strikes for front strike group during movement forward and break through and during the development of the attack;
- missions for armies during breakthrough and for first day of the operation;
- missions for air assault forces;
- questions on interaction during the breakthrough;
- main issues on combat support measures;
- troop control issues.

The front commander, while making his decision for the offensive, determines the exact area for the breakthrough. During the offensive, when the forces begin to execute the breakthrough mission, he does not have to change the decision. He only has to make a few important issues more specific in accordance with the latest reconnaissance information. The most important task of the front troop control organs consists of reenforcing the forces to organize the breakthrough and develop the offensive into the depth of the defense. The front commander specifies the mission for the rocket troops and artillery and aviation during the breakthrough and gives more detail to the first-echelon armies on the breakthrough, development of the offensive, missions for second-echelon, reserves, and air assaults. He organizes interaction, all-around combat support for the offensive, and troop control. When the front commander provides more detail on the breakthrough decision, the troop control organs act in the following manner:

Chief of reconnaissance:
- organizes reconnaissance and specifies new tasks for the reconnaissance troops;
- at the end of the artillery fire preparation evaluates the situation, status, and level of destruction and activities of enemy forces, and reports the most important results and changes to the commander and chief of staff, and informs the chiefs of combat arms and special troops;
- conducts reconnaissance of enemy defense system and system of engineer obstacles and fortifications, determines the grouping and actions and enemy concept of action; _
- during the breakthrough, reconnoiters the enemy reserves and axes for its movements, and other enemy measures for strengthening his defense in the breakthrough area;
- monitors fulfillment of issued tasks by the reconnaissance forces;

Chief of Operations Directorate:
- issues orders to subordinate forces in accordance with his instructions for those missions that the front commander has made more detailed;
- monitors the movement forward and timely deployment of the formations of the first-echelon armies to the breakthrough zone, conduct of the attack, and movement of forces into the enemy depth in accordance with the operations plan
- monitors movement of front artillery, PVO, and command posts to the designated areas;
- monitors conduct of preparatory fire by artillery and air forces;
- observes the situation and status of own forces, when difficult situations arise during critical periods, quickly reports to the commander;
- monitors the accomplishment of the maskirovka measures;

Chief of Rocket Troops and Artillery:
- establishes new missions for rocket troops and artillery during the breakthrough ;
- monitors movement of artillery into firing positions, conduct of artillery reconnaissance and preparation of artillery for firing, occupying firing positions, conduct of artillery preparation, artillery support fire and accompanying fire in accordance with the artillery fire plan;
- in accordance with the situation or orders from the commander offers needed assistance to the combined arms formations and large units during the operation;

Commander of Air Army:
- conduct of air reconnaissance of important enemy targets and observes reserves;
- conduct of air preparation, support accompanying strikes ;
- cover of front main forces, command posts, and rear service targets from enemy air strikes;
- support for armies movement during breakthrough and course of the operation;
- reconnaissance of nuclear weapons and their rapid destruction;
- destruction of enemy air forces on airfields and in the air;

Chief of Air Defense:
- organizes and controls air defense and constant cover of the strike group, command posts, rocket forces, and aviation and rear service targets from enemy air strikes. Also conducts reconnaissance and warning of forces about enemy air attacks.

Chief of Staff:
- monitors the actions of front forces during the movement deployment, and occupation of artillery firing positions, conduct of preparatory fire, conduct of breakthrough, and development of offensive into the depth;
- monitors results of front forces' actions in complex situations quickly reports to commander and offers his recommendations on assistance for subordinates;

Front Commander:
The commander also monitors the forces' actions as they are closing on the forward edge of the enemy defense, the preparation of rocket forces and artillery and aviation for conduct of artillery and air preparation, conduct of aviation and artillery preparatory fire, breakthrough, and movement of forces into enemy depths. The results of the air, ground, and space reconnaissance makes the situation clear. If some army during the breakthrough or the offensive meets with a difficult situation, he quickly assists with aviation, rocket forces, or second-echelon, reserves or other forces.

The front commander during this period controls the front forces from the command post or forward command post and sometimes goes to the command post of first-echelon army acting on the main axis. He conducts control mostly with personal contact and with signal means. Or he sends staff officers to the subordinates.

During the period of the breakthrough the radio units of special designation (SPETZNAZ) cut the nets of enemy nuclear weapons control, system of warning, and system of troop control of rocket forces, aviation, and PVO. Also the units of radio-technical SPETZNAZ cut the systems of radio control of aviation and also cover the positions of rocket brigades, artillery, and main grouping of front. During the breakthrough the front staff observes enemy reserves and its direction and enemy measures for reenforcing his defense in the breakthrough sector.



 
 

Staff Actions During Commitment of Second-echelon

One of the most important missions of the front troop control during the operation consists of organizing and control of the commitment of the front second-echelon. The commander's and staff's and other organs' actions during organization of the commitment and support of combat actions of the second-echelon are in accordance with the situation and the front's appointed missions during the commitment. The front commander, when planning the operation, approximately designates the line for commitment of the second-echelon, but during the operation the commander makes his exact decision on the commitment of the second-echelon in accordance with the actual conditions of the situation. The staff and troop control organs receive required data and report to the commander on the exact decision as follows:

Chief of reconnaissance:
- situation, character of actions, groupings, and composition of enemy forces;
- designates the sectors weakly held by the enemy, and locations of mine fields and other obstacles;
- nearby enemy reserves and their capabilities to interrupt the commitment of the second-echelon and during the operation;
- concept and possible mind of enemy;
- weak and strong points of enemy;
- most important reconnaissance missions in support of commitment and designation of forces and means for reconnaissance missions;
Chief of Operations Directorate:
- situation, character of actions, and capabilities of own forces;
- location of second-echelon forces and best line for their commitment into the engagement;
- correlation of forces of the two sides on the entire front and on the axis for the commitment of the second-echelon, possible changes in the correlation of forces during the commitment;
- axis and zone of movement for second-echelon;
- conduct of calculations for movement, deployment, and commitment into combat;
- organization of commandant's service;
- organization of troop control during the commitment of second-echelon;
- monitor and offer assistance to subordinates;

Chief of Rocket Forces and Artillery:
- reenforcing the second-echelon forces with artillery and creation of artillery group for the army, divisions, and regiments during the commitment of the second-echelon;
-support of second-echelon during the commitment and missions for rocket and artillery forces for adjacent armies and divisions that operate in the breakthrough sector;
- duration of artillery preparatory fire or artillery strike and resupply of ammunition;
- use of artillery for support of commitment of second-echelon and density of artillery per kilometer of frontage;
- means for conduct of artillery preparatory, support and accompanying fire;
- cover of dangerous flanks of second-echelon during commitment by anti-tank reserves and mobile obstacle detachments.

Commander of Air Army:
- conduct of aerial reconnaissance with aim of support for commitment of second-echelon;
- conduct of aerial preparation during the commitment and support for it during the operation;
- cover of second-echelon during movement into area, during commitment, and during combat action in enemy depth.

Chief of Air Defense:
- cover of second-echelon in its assembly area, during movement into combat, and during commitment into combat;
- cover of second-echelon forces during the operation;
- aerial reconnaissance and warning forces of enemy air strikes during movement, commitment into engagement and course of the operation.

Chief of Engineer Troops:
- reenforcement of second-echelon with engineer forces of front during commitment;
- conduct of engineer reconnaissance of the location and area of movement, and area of commitment of second-echelon;
- preparation of routes for movement and deployment;
- making passages in enemy mine fields areas of deployment and of commitment
- cover of open flanks of second-echelon by the mobile obstacle detachments in interaction with antitank reserves;

Chief of Staff:
Results of his assessment of the enemy:
- situation, character of actions, groupings, possible concept of operation;
- best line for commitment of second-echelon;
- nearby enemy reserves, possible reactions during commitment and course of operation;
- weak and strong points of enemy;
Suggestions on preparing the decision
- means for reenforcing line and time for commitment, means for enemy destruction axis of main attack, immediate mission,axis for further advance;
- zone and axis of movement of second-echelon;
- support of second-echelon during commitment and course of the operation by rocket troops, artillery, and air forces;
- cover of second-echelon from enemy air strikes during movement, commitment into engagement, and course of the offensive;

Front Commander makes his decision on committing the second-echelon on the basis of his all-around estimate of the situation after listening to suggestions of chief of staff and chiefs of combat arms and special troops, and recommendations of chief of staff on the concept of the commitment of the second-echelon. If there is not enough time and the commander already knows the operational situation fully, he may only listen to the most important information from the chiefs; such as the grouping, location, character of actions of enemy, weak and strong points, correlation of forces and means, and possible changes in correlation during commitment of second-echelon. After that he makes his decision on the commitment, in which he designates, the following:
- brief assessment of the enemy;
- forces and means for reenforcement during commitment, line and time for commitment, means for destruction of enemy, axis of main attack, immediate mission, axis for further offensive;
- zone of movement;
- missions for front forces in interest of commitment;
- missions of first-echelon armies with aim of securing the commitment;
- time for preparation for fulfillment of missions and time for commitment into engagement;
- troop control, signals, and deputies.

In accordance with the front commander's decision the staff issues the missions to the forces. Reconnaissance is organized and strengthened on the axis of commitment. The chief of engineer troops designates the required engineer forces and means to prepare movement and deployment routes and issues their missions. The commander and staff with the aim of inflicting destruction on opposing enemy grouping and successful commitment of second-echelon organize interaction between rocket forces, artillery, air forces, PVO forces, armies of first-echelon which operate on the selected axis, and front reserves. They control air strikes, rocket troops, and artillery, and active operations of first-echelon forces against enemy forces. The front staff during the commitment beforehand deploys the front forward command post on the axis so that the front commander can control the forces from there.

1. This section is from the Lectures for the Voroshilov Academy Vol III to be published by NDU Press.