SOVIET VOROSHILOV ACADEMY LECTURES
FRONT OPERATIONS

Troop control system of front aviation

The troop control system of front aviation is obliged to accomplish the following missions: \ control the front aviation in the air and on the ground;
----- provide interaction between front aviation troops and ground forces including the issue of mutual identification;
----- control movement, operation, flights, and provide flight security of all flying means in the areas of responsibility of front aviation;

The following control points are established in the front aviation combat troop control system:
----- front aviation command post (KPBA) is established 10 to 15 km from the front command post;
----- forward command post of front aviation (PKPVA) is established in the area of the front forward command post;
----- rear command post of front aviation (TPUVA) is established 10 - 15 km from the front aviation command post;
----- airborne command post of front aviation (VKPVA) is established over the helicopter base near the closest airfield;
----- combat troop control center of front aviation's fighter aircraft (TSBUIAVA) is established at the front air defense command post (KPPVO) and is designated for control of fighter aircraft during covering of troops and rear services installations against enemy air strikes, particularly during the repelling of mass flights, and for the conduct of interaction of fighter aircraft with air defense means;
----- combat control centers of front aviation (TSBUVA) are deployed at the command posts of first-echelon combined arms and tank armies and, depending of the number of first-echelon armies, they may number from 2 to 3. These centers are designated to conduct interaction of aviation troops with army troops, control of front aircraft and control of action of all aviation units and various aircraft in the operational areas of the combined arms and tank armies;
----- guidance and target designation points (PNTS); Two to three of these points are established in each combat control center of the air armies (TSVUVA). These points are designated to insure the arrival of aircraft on the ground targets, guidance of fighter aircraft to air targets, provide interaction with air defense rocket units, insure mutual identification between aircraft and ground forces, and provide flight security for the aircraft;
----- combat control groups (GBU) are established at the command posts of first-echelon motorized rifle and tank divisions, and in the combined arms armies; They may number six to nine. These groups are designated for coordination of aviation troops with motorized rifle and tank divisions, and airborne assault troops, to provide mutual identification between aircraft and ground forces and guidance of aircraft to ground targets;
----- target definition posts (PTS) are attached to combat control groups (GBU) and are deployed to show targets to the aircraft. These posts are established on helicopters, small aircraft, infantry combat vehicles (BMP), or armored personnel carriers (APC);
----- radio navigation points (RNP) are assigned to guide aircraft and to support the flight of aircraft in the area of combined arms and tank armies and to designate for friendly aircraft the flight corridor from the front line into the enemy area. There may be 2 to 3 of these;
----- air observation posts (PVN) are established in motorized rifle and tank divisions to observe and perform visual reconnaissance of the air situation and for observation of air targets at low altitude, which cannot be covered by radar;
----- command posts (KP) are established for fighter, fighter-bomber, and bomber aviation divisions;
----- forward command posts (PKP) are established for fighter, fighter-bomber, and bomber aviation divisions;
-------- - aviation regiment command posts (KP) are established for the different aviation regiments.



Duties of front aviation officers



Duties of the front aviation commander

The front aviation commander is the principle regulator of the combat action of front aviation troops, and controls them personally or through the staff. He is responsible for the following tasks:
----- conducting training and insuring high combat readiness of the troops, special troops, and services, and for troop control of front aviation to accomplish likely future missions;
----- insuring the full strength of front aviation in terms of flight crews, professional and technical personnel, and organic cadres of the large units, units, and service installations;
----- insuring full strength of front aviation in terms of aircraft, helicopters, weapons, ammunition, technical equipment, material supplies, and timely repair of aircraft, helicopters, and technical equipment;
----- raising the experience, skills, and combat capability of troops;
----- personally or jointly with chief of staff and chief of the political department, clarifying the combat mission and issuing instructions to the chief of staff on preparing the troops, special troops, services, staff, and installations for combat, and giving the time of preparations for attack or combat actions;
----- instructing the chief of staff and the chief of reconnaissance on preparing reconnaissance information required for making the decision and conduct of combat actions. The front aviation commander personally estimates the situation, or he may assemble the chiefs of staff directorates and related commanders in an appropriate place in order to listen to their detailed suggestions about the employment of troops, or he may listen to suggestions of the chief of staff of front aviation about the conclusions of the estimate of the situation and decision, and make his decision accordingly.

The commander personally, or through the chiefs of staff directorates or through written orders and maps, or through communications means, issues combat missions to subordinates. In addition he:
----- coordinates the actions of front aviation troops with the actions of combined arms and tank armies of the front, and rocket and artillery troops, front and national defense troops, strategic aviation, transport aviation, and naval forces (in naval directions) in different phases of the operation;
----- issues necessary instructions for all-round support measures for front aviation;
----- supervises the deployment of front aviation on permanent and deployment airfields at appropriate times, issues instructions on technical and rear service support of air troops, and controls their execution;
----- prepares rear service orders through the rear service staff and issues orders to aviation units and large units;
----- takes actions on organization of repair and evacuation through related headquarters and organizations;
----- personally, or through his staff and troop control organizations, controls preparation for the operation and accomplishment of assigned combat missions by troops, special troops, and services and extends necessary assistance to the troops;
----- continuously evaluates the situation, predicts likely changes in the situation, makes timely situation oriented decisions, and issues combat missions to subordinates.

He also presents his suggestions to the front commander on the employment of front aviation. The front aviation commander must always be prepared to report to the front commander and commander-in-chief of air forces about the situation, status, and character of operation of own troops and about his decision. His other duties include the following:
----- he briefs his chief of staff on his concept and intention and informs him of instructions issued to the troops;
----- he issues instructions to his chief of staff on organization of front aviation command posts, of front aviation, and the command elements of front aviation established at the headquarters of coordinating operational formations and large units.

The front aviation commander is responsible for the high moral and political status of officers, subordinates, staff, and troops.



Duties of chief of staff of front aviation

The chief of staff is the first deputy commander and director of the staff.

Only the chief of staff has authority to issue instructions and orders in the name of the front aviation commander to operational units and combined units, special troops and services, and other related personnel directly under the commander of the front aviation.

The chief of staff reports to the commander about all instructions he issues. The chief of staff is responsible for the following:
----- appropriate conduct of all missions and organized operations of the front aviation staff;
----- briefing deputy commander, chiefs of combat arms, and special troops and services on received combat mission and issuing instructions on preparation of preliminary instructions, calendar plan, preparation of calculations for the commander's decision, and the time of their preparation.

The chief of staff is responsible to know constantly the combat situation and to predict likely changes in the situation, and to be prepared to report to the commander of front aviation and higher headquarters the following:
----- the situation, status, and characteristics of the operation of friendly air force and enemy forces;
----- deductions from the estimate of the situation and suggestions about the decision to be made by the front aviation commander;
----- measures of organization of command and control, coordination and combat support measures of front aviation;
----- the issuing of instructions on missions, aims, and elements of reconnaissance to the chief of front aviation reconnaissance;
----- coordination of work amongst staff organizations all chiefs of combat arms, special troops and services, and other troop control organizations;
----- direct supervision and guidance of the planning of the air operation, initial nuclear strike, and other combat actions conducted by front aviation. Chief of staff personally prepares and writes certain important documents, such as combat directions, and personally participates in preparation and organization of certain tasks and working out of some important documents, and supervises the conduct of such tasks. Based on instructions of the front aviation commander, organization of command posts within front aviation and control elements of front aviation established in the command posts of coordinating operational formations and large units including preparation of staff officers and establishment of continuous communications with them;
----- signing or approving of all directives, orders, instructions, plans, and important combat documents which are prepared and issued at the aviation staff;
----- organization in peacetime of training and high combat readiness of large units, units, and staffs in accordance with plans and instructions of front aviation commander.



Duties of the chief of operations of front aviation

The chief of operations is one of the important chiefs of staff directorates. He is obliged to conduct tasks pertaining to training, upgrading combat readiness of front aviation troops, and preparation of plans and important combat documents. The chief of operations carries out the following tasks:
----- prepares initial instructions, calendar plan;
----- sometimes the chief of operations personally writes the directives and operation order, and prepares other important combat documents;
----- prepares calculations and data as well as necessary suggestions for the commander's decision;
----- plans air operations, initial nuclear strike of front (graphic of initial nuclear strike of front aviation), and other combat documents with annexes, tables, graphs, plans of preparation and occupation of deployment air fields in the departure area and during the operation, plan of maskirovka, plan of protection of aviation troops from mass destruction weapons, and plan of employment of air assault operations (in conjunction with other related organizations involved with planning of airborne operation);
----- conveys combat missions to front aviation large units and units;
----- organizes interaction and prepares instructions for tables of interaction with coordinating forces;
----- organizes deployment of command posts and their relocation during the operation insuring continuous, reliable, stable communication, designates troop control signals and insures security of the front aviation command posts;
----- prepares front aviation troops to accomplish combat missions and controls the accomplishment of assigned missions by subordinates and extends necessary assistance to them;
----- prepares combat documents on troop control;
----- collects, evaluates, and analyzes information about the situation during the preparation for and during the operation and presents suggestions about the decision to the commander;
----- insures the timely submission of information about the situation and regular situation reports to higher headquarters, and information to subordinates headquarters, headquarters of interacting troops and adjacents about the changes in the situations.



The duties of the chief of reconnaissance of front aviation

The chief of reconnaissance is responsible for training, combat readiness, and reconnaissance operation of air reconnaissance units and their troop control in peacetime and war. The chief of reconnaissance carries out the following tasks:
----- prepares calculations and necessary data for the front aviation commander's decision;
----- collects, studies, analyzes, and makes deductions about reconnaissance information on the enemy and terrain;
----- presents important information to the chief of staff, front aviation commander, higher and subordinate headquarters, and adjacents;
----- designates targets and tasks and allocates reconnaissance troops and means for each reconnaissance target and task;
----- prepares reconnaissance plan, annexes, and related documents and presents them for the signature of the chief of staff and approval of front aviation commander;
----- assigns combat missions to subordinate reconnaissance units;
----- coordinates reconnaissance action and interaction, and all types of reconnaissance in terms of mission, objectives, and time;
----- prepares and employs air reconnaissance units and subunits, and provides for their all-around support;
----- controls execution of assigned instructions and orders, and practically assists with the organizing of reconnaissance units and subunits, and other aviation units and subunits that are conditionally and temporarily employed to carry out reconnaissance missions;
----- organizes continuous communication with reconnaissance units, subunits, and organizations, and exchanges reconnaissance information with headquarters of adjacents, higher echelons, subordinates, and coordinating forces;
----- receives reconnaissance information from aircraft crews, analyzes it, makes deductions, and disseminates it to related headquarters and persons.



Organization and preparation of combat action of front aviation

Organization and preparation of the combat action of front aviation in an offensive operation include a series of tasks and measures conducted by the commander and staff of front aviation. The most important tasks and measures are the following:
----- making the decision;
----- planning the combat action;
----- establishment of the grouping and deployment of aviation forces and means;
----- preparation of the main and reserve airfield network and establishment of material reserves there;
----- organization of interaction;
----- organization of various supporting measures;
----- organization of troop control.

The commander of front aviation makes his decision on the employment of front aviation after he completes his clarification of the mission, studies the front commander's decision for the offensive operation and the front aviation mission in support of the front operations, studies the instructions from the staff of the main command of the air force, and makes a thorough assessment of the situation (estimate of the situation).

During his clarification of the mission the front aviation commander clarifies the volume and number of tasks the front aviation must accomplish during the operation and determines the most important tasks for the accomplishment of which the main effort of front aviation is to be concentrated. The commander of front aviation, through his chief of staff, briefs the chiefs of front aviation staff directorates on the assigned combat mission. He also issues preliminary orders on preparation of the air force troops, command posts, rear services, and airfield service support for the upcoming offensive operation. In addition, he instructs the chiefs of the staff directorates to prepare the required calculations needed by the front aviation commander for making the decision. The commander then begins the assessment (estimate) of the situation.



Estimate of the situation by the front aviation commander

The front aviation commander, with the assistance of the staff, personally makes the decision. In the meantime, the commander evaluates the following points during the assessment of the situation:

During the assessment of the enemy:
----- situation, status, character of action, and intention of enemy ground forces;
----- situation, status, location, and capabilities of enemy air defense forces, strong and weak points in the enemy's air defense and, accordingly, his determination for (designation of) the corridors for the action of front aviation when it launches the initial nuclear strike or conducts the initial air operation.

Grouping of enemy's air forces:

1. airfields on which the enemy's nuclear-capable aircraft are based, and the number and type of such aircraft;

2. likely strike directions of the enemy's air force and which targets in the front area the enemy is likely to hit;

3. likely distribution of the enemy's striking air force grouping in terms of altitudes, directions, and targets;

4. location of the command posts of enemy aircraft, primarily the command posts of nuclear-capable aircraft, the command posts of enemy air defense forces, air forces, ground forces, and the most important civil administration centers:
----- location of the enemy's nuclear rocket troops and his nuclear depots;
----- location of enemy reserves, vital rear services installations, and other important enemy targets.

During the assessment of friendly forces:
----- situation, status, and location of friendly air force troops, availability and number of aircraft and pilots and their capabilities in conducting maximum number of flights per day;
----- situation and status of available airfields where the aircraft are based;
----- situation and status of deployment airfields and the situation of their material and technical support;
----- the level of established strength (strength in accordance with the authorized establishment) and preparedness of aviation to accomplish likely future missions;
----- in the conclusion of the assessment of friendly forces, the commander determines when the air force troops should move to the deployment airfields;
----- during the assessment of air defense troops, rocket and artillery troops, and radio-electronic warfare troops, the commander evaluates their situation, status, and capabilities and determines to what extent they can help front aviation to accomplish the mission, particularly in suppressing the enemy's air defense;
----- during the assessment of terrain, weather, season, and other meteorological factors, the commander evaluates the positive and negative effects of these factors on the air force troops, air crews, and technical services in support of air fields. Accordingly, he takes necessary measures and issues immediate instructions.

In the conclusion of a thorough and all-around assessment and deep evaluation of the situation, the front aviation commander makes his decision, to include the following points:

1. deductions from the assessment of the enemy:
----- the main nuclear groupings;
----- the groupings of enemy air, ground, and air defense forces.

2. the concept of combat action:
----- the aim of action, its objective, the main tasks on which to concentrate the main effort of the air forces, the number of flights, the number of nuclear and chemical bombs, and the grouping of front aviation; ----- the method for conducting the initial nuclear strike (targets, calculations, and distribution of troops to destroy them, operational formation, and method of penetrating the enemy air defense);
----- the method of accomplishing missions in the air operation (the initial massive strike and air battle are described in detail);
----- the method of accomplishing missions in covering friendly forces and rear service installations against enemy air strikes, in cooperation with air defense forces;
----- support of first-echelon combined arms and tank armies;
----- conduct of air reconnaissance;
----- other important tasks.

3. Missions of large aviation units (divisions, etc.) and units (regiments):
----- each division and regiment is assigned missions for one day and an operating direction for the following day.

4. Instructions on the front aviation air bases.

5. Instructions on interaction.

6. Instructions on combat support measures.

7. Instructions on troop control, deputies, and signal communications.

After making the decision, the front aviation commander issues instructions on planning. The most detailed planning is done for the first day of the operation and especially for the initial nuclear strike or initial massive air strike.



Calculations performed by and in support of front aviation commander in making the decision and preparing the plan of operations

There are many kinds of calculations required for making a scientifically substantiated decision and for developing a complete plan of air operations. Some are relatively simple comparisons of sets of data, and others require application of complex formulae. The following are some of the more important calculations:



Calculations about the enemy

The enemy aerial assets are determined by totals and for each category of aircraft, that is, tactical, tactical-strategic, and strategic. The time they can interfere with friendly activities is calculated based on time and distance factors. In the Western TVD the first group of enemy aircraft is formed by the two OTAC's (2d and 4th). The second group is the strategic bombers which are based deeper in the theater, and the third group is the aircraft coming from the U.S. as reinforcements. The air staff has to calculate the timing to determine when, where, how, and how many aircraft can attack the front in the first-echelon (not including strategic reserves). The general estimate is that NATO will have about 400 aircraft in its first-echelon (that is, not including aircraft based in the theater rear or strategic reserves coming from the U.S.A.) available to attack each Warsaw Pact front. From this they then calculate the attrition these enemy aircraft will inflict on friendly forces in each of the enemy massive strikes. They also calculate the attrition on the enemy from friendly air defense, friendly massive air operations, and friendly nuclear strikes.

In non-nuclear war the assumption is that the enemy will conduct massive air strikes in accordance with the intensity of the war, his concept of operations, and the strength of Warsaw Pact air defenses. In any case NATO would keep the principal part of its strategic aviation forces and one-third of other nuclear-capable tactical aircraft and aircraft carrier aircraft on nuclear alert, always ready to launch a nuclear strike. Therefore, on the first day of the NATO conventional air operation they would allocate the rest of the available aircraft to establish air superiority. The NATO air effort on the first day would have for its main targets Warsaw Pact airbases, airfields, air defense means (SAMs and fighters), radio-technical forces, command posts, etc. Only after this air superiority effort was completed would the air forces turn to support of ground operations. Then air efforts would be divided into three main categories of effort: support of ground forces 50%, interdiction of the combat action area 25%, and reconnaissance 25%.

From the assessment of the nature of NATO air operations on each day Soviet planners can proceed to make calculations on the kinds of targets and kinds of aircraft involved. This information in turn is used in the calculations on attrition for each side.



Enemy troop control

The locations of enemy troop control centers and guidance posts are determined, and the friendly forces and means required to destroy and/or jam them are calculated.



Enemy air defense system

The capabilities of the enemy air defense system are calculated and used in the selection of the friendly penetration corridors. Among the factors considered in this determination are the mission, enemy strength and characteristics, geography, terrain, and meteorological conditions. The width of the penetration corridor is calculated based on the numbers of bombs and other weapons required to destroy sufficient air defense systems, the numbers of such munitions and delivery aircraft available, and the requirements for corridors developed in the plan for the massive strike. The role of radio-electronic warfare also plays a part in that the capabilities and characteristics of the jamming plan are related to the creation of the air corridor. The times for creation of the corridor and for keeping it open are carefully calculated so that enemy forces are destroyed, suppressed, or jammed at the optimum time for the passage of the strike aircraft (in a manner comparable to the use of artillery suppressive fire during the attack by tanks and infantry).



Resources of front aviation and the distribution of front aviation assets in relation to front missions, such as the initial nuclear strike, immediate missions, subsequent mission, etc., and distribution between first- and second-echelon armies


The distribution requires a calculation of the correlation of troops and means, not only in aircraft but also in bombs, rockets, and nuclear weapons across the entire frontline, for the width of the main attack and for other attack sectors. The correlation is calculated for the beginning of the operation, after the initial nuclear strike, at the end of the first day, at the end of the immediate missions of the armies, at the end of the immediate mission of the front, and at the end of the entire operation. The calculation generally uses a coefficient of availability of aircraft of 0.9 per day, and in addition factors for various levels of intensity are applied to the amount of attrition according to norms for nuclear and conventional war. The attrition calculation also depends on the assessment of the enemy capability to launch massive air nuclear strikes. The basic assumption is that the enemy can launch three massive air or nuclear strikes in the first one to two days with 60% of his forces active in the first air strike. Each strike in turn is divided into several echelons.

The procedure for distributing the front's air sorties to the armies and in turn to the divisions is a "top-down" method starting from the total number of air sorties allocated to the front by the commander in chief of the air forces (rather than a "bottom up" method starting with the number of sorties that might be required by the front based on some assessment of the number of targets). The typical front having two fighter-bomber divisions and one bomber division of three regiments each might have a total of 135 regimental sorties of fighter-bombers and 60 regimental sorties of bombers available for the 15 days of the operation. (Given that there will be 1.5 army air sorties per day on average). Of these the commander can't allocate more than perhaps two-thirds or 90 of the fighter-bomber sorties to the armies for the main attack in the immediate mission of seven to nine days (or 15 to 20 per army). The commander would plan to keep in his reserve an average of nine to 18 regimental sorties throughout the operation for use in daily contingencies. The commander does not let air sit idle and aims for the maximum use of air resources each day. Air sorties cannot be "saved" on one day for use on the next.

On the other hand, the assignment of numbers of attacking aircraft to individual targets is based on a detailed comparison of the nature and characteristics of the target to the capabilities and characteristics of the aircraft and the various weapons systems it carries. There are tables showing the norms for each type of aircraft and configuration of weapons in various situations. In addition such intangibles as level of training and relation to air defense are considered. There are also norms for the various target types, situations, terrain, and levels of required destruction. Units deployed for combat require more attacking aircraft than units on the march. For instance, a sortie by a squadron of 9-12 fully-loaded SU 7B aircraft can damage 10-15% of a mechanized battalion on the march and inflict a delay of 20-30 minutes. To destroy the battalion would require four to five times the number of aircraft.



Calculation on the establishment of air cover

In this calculation the locations of the lines for interception of enemy aircraft are calculated based on ranges and flight times from interceptor airfields. The times for interception and the numbers of aircraft available when and where are calculated. The numbers of aircraft to be placed on air patrol and in first and second readiness status are determined. The locations and times for establishing combat air patrol are based on calculations of the directions and times of enemy attacks and the numbers and nature of the targets to be defended. The most important targets are the surface-to-surface missile brigades, the main attack forces, command posts, and the rear services installations. All this is coordinated with the actions of the air defense rockets.

Air cover of the front is a part of a larger system established in the theater. The front calculations are based on the directive of the commander in chief of the air forces and the instructions of the commander in chief of national PVO and the general staff (especially when naval air is also involved). On the other hand, many of the details are not worked out by the front aviation staff but at a lower level, namely in the command post of fighter aircraft, which is a part of the air defense command system.

One of the most important and complex requirements involving calculations is maintaining air cover over the front as it moves, whether in an offensive or on the march. The front aviation fighters will require a number of intermediate airfields from which to fly. They will be rebased in a sequential, alternating manner. While some are rebasing they may be supplemented by aircraft from national PVO or the Warsaw Pact countries. When, where, and how many aircraft are needed must be calculated.



Initial nuclear strike

The number and type of nuclear bombs and rockets to be used in the initial nuclear strike, and the number and types of aircraft to deliver them are calculated based on the characteristics of the various weapons and platforms and the numbers available. There are always more targets than there are available weapons, so the calculation becomes a process of matching targets with weapons. For instance, if there are more short-range aircraft available (say, with ranges to 60 km) then more of the rockets will be assigned to deeper targets, but if there are more long-range bombers available, then they will take deeper targets, and the rockets can fire on closer targets.



Aerial reconnaissance capabilities and requirements

Aerial reconnaissance is planned in coordination with the front reconnaissance plan. The numbers and types of aircraft are determined. There are norms based on their operating characteristics, such as radius of operation, loiter time, and the capabilities of sensors. The most important reconnaissance mission is the post-nuclear strike assessment of target damage and location of new targets. For this mission about 60% of the front's total assets are used.



Troop control

The numbers, locations, and times for movement and establishment for command posts are all calculated.



Airfield requirements

The general rule is that each aviation regiment requires two to three airfields for deployment. Of the total of all airfields in use in the front about 35% are permanent, main fields; 35% are deployment fields; and 30% are maneuver or alternate fields. Alternate airfields are defined as those that are required for establishing temporary groups of aircraft, for dispersion purposes, etc. In addition to airfields, wide areas along highways are used. (These are built in peacetime as part of the preparation of the theater of military operations.) Deceptive airfields are also required on the basis of the operational maskirovka plan. In general these will amount to one-third to one-half the number of permanent airfields built in peacetime. During the operation each aviation division has four to six active and two to three alternate airfields. The plan also establishes the airfields to be occupied during the move forward and whether these will be seized or built. The plan also indicates the limitation set by higher headquarters in that it will reserve some fields for its own use.



The availability and time delivery of aerial bombs and munitions

The information is shown in a table depicting the quantity of each munition on hand at the beginning of the operation, how mucåh is delivered each day during the operation, how much is to be used at each stage, and the supply at the end of the operation. The expenditure is calculated in terms of unit of fire "boevoy komplect." A unit of fire for aerial munitions is the quantity of the munition carried in one aircraft load. The expenditure rates are established in the instructions given by the commander in chief of the air forces.



Movement of aircraft from permanent to deployment fields

This calculation is based on readiness times, movement times, distances, and preparation times at the new fields. The results of the calculations are shown in tables. One column lists the air divisions and regiments, the next column shows their present,(peacetime) locations, the next column shows their new airfield locations. The time to move from one field to the other, the earliest time to reach the new field, and the new readiness time are all shown in columns.

Developing the plan of the combat action of front aviation in the front offensive operation

During the organization of the combat action of front aviation, the front aviation commander, after clarifying the mission and the decision of the front commander and instructions from higher headquarters, making a thorough assessment of the situation, and making his decision on the combat employment of the front aviation, instructs the staff to plan the action of front aviation.

On the basis of the front aviation commander's decision, the front aviation staff, led by the chief of staff, plans the front aviation operation on the map and prepares other required documents with instructions, documents, tables, diagrams, and required text. The plan is worked out in more detail and more elaboration for the first day of the operation, particularly for the initial nuclear strike and the initial massive strike on the enemy.

In the graphic part of the plan the following elements are shown on the map:
----- the situation and the character of operations of the enemy ground forces and main air grouping;
----- the enemy's air force grouping (airfields, number and type of aircraft, possible flight directions for enemy operations, and likely actions of enemy against front forces and installations);
----- distribution of enemy air forces against the targets, main targets of enemy strikes and their likely classification in terms of different altitudes and most likely direction of flight of air mobile forces);
----- the location of nuclear rocket forces, nuclear depots, command posts, and also enemy air defense troops;
----- operational disposition of front forces and their missions and boundary lines with adjacents and between armies;
----- command posts of front armies and divisions in their departure areas and during the operation;
----- grouping of air defense forces of front, armies, and adjacent armies;
----- grouping of front front aviation troops in the departure area, that is, the deployment of fighter, fighter-bomber, bomber, reconnaissance and transport aviation, and helicopters on airfields at the beginning and during the operation;
----- areas of fighter aircraft on combat air patrol and lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from these areas; lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from positions where standby combat aircraft are on alert on their airfields;
----- the front aviation command post and the combat troop control system of the front aviation at the beginning and during the operation;
----- areas of friendly forces' radars and air defense rocket and artillery positions;
----- areas for dropping airborne troops, direction of flight of airborne forces, and method of support during embarcation, during flight, during the drop, and during the landing operation.

In addition to these, the following documents are also prepared:
----- graphic of the initial nuclear strike pertaining to the employment of the front aviation, to include targets, elements to destroy them, and the operational formation through the air defense, etc.;
----- method of conduct of air operations, that is, graphic of the initial massive strike and air battles, to include targets, number of aircraft for each target - operational formation, and penetration through the air defense;
----- covering of troops against enemy air strikes in cooperation with air defense forces;
----- support of combined arms and tank armies during the operation;
----- conduct of air reconnaissance.

The written instructions of the plan include the following details:
----- assessment of enemy air and air defense forces;
----- distribution of flights in support of combined arms and tank armies, and support of airborne, etc.;
----- allocation of a number of nuclear and chemical bombs and their distribution between the initial nuclear strike, the immediate and subsequent missions of the front, and armies and reserves;
----- combat composition of the front aviation;
----- concept and tasks in the initial nuclear strike and air operation;
----- other details.

The working documents reflect the following items:
----- calculation of the time required for bringing air force troops to the state of full combat readiness and combat alert;
----- measures of protection of troops and means from the impact of nuclear weapons;
----- diagrams of warning, tables of coordination, tables of signal communication, etc.;
----- in addition to this, other tables, diagrams, and graphics required for the operation are prepared.

The plan is signed by the front aviation commander and chief of staff and front chief of staff and is approved by the front commander.



Coordination of offensive action

Interaction is organized on the basis of the instructions of the front commander in order to coordinate in the most appropriate manner the efforts of front aviation with the combined arms and tank armies in terms of missions, times, and space in the offensive operation, and to organize the most effective interaction between them. Interaction regulates and harmonizes the actions of different elements during launching air strikes and provides for mutual identification. Interaction is organized by the commander and staff of front aviation, combined arms, and tank armies throughout the entire depth of the operation and during the accomplishment of important missions, such as:
----- breakthrough of enemy defenses;
----- initial nuclear strike;
----- commitment of second-echelon forces;
----- repelling the enemy counterblow;
----- river crossing operation on wide rivers;
----- launching of airborne and seaborne assault forces.

In addition, interaction of the front aviation is established with units and large units of rocket and artillery forces, air defense, radio-electronic jamming units, and others.

The important issues of interaction of front aviation are specified in the decision of the front aviation commander and these issues are also reflected in the plans of combat actions of front aviation.



The main issues of interaction

During the establishment of interaction between front aviation and combined arms and tank armies the following issues are coordinated:
----- distribution of nuclear rounds allocated to front aviation for different tasks;
----- distribution of specified air sorties of front aviation among combined arms and tank armies;
----- air reconnaissance tasks and methods for sending reconnaissance information to the headquarters of combined arms and tank armies;
----- the method of calling for air support by ground forces;
----- tasks on dropping or landing airborne troops and support of their combat action;
----- method for seizure of enemy airfields by infantry and tank troops, support of the movement of airfield engineer units to those airfields, provision of assistance to them in restoring the seized airfields for own use, and provision of support for their defense;
----- support of the movement of air armies' rear service units in the wake of attacking troops;
----- cooperation and interaction during the accomplishment of important tasks such as penetration of enemy defenses, repelling counterblows, commitment of second-echelon troops, and other important missions;
----- mutual identification, target definition, and signals.

The establishment of interaction between front aviation and rocket and artillery troops includes the following:
----- targets and the time for launching attacks against them by nuclear-delivery means;
----- suppression and destruction of enemy air defense targets in support of the flight of front aviation aircraft;
----- conduct of air reconnaissance in support of rocket and artillery troops;
----- providing flight security for aircraft in the firing zone of rocket and artillery troops;
----- mutual identification and definition of targets.

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with air defense troops include the following:
----- method of warning on the air situation;
----- combat action areas of air defense rocket troops, air defense artillery units, and fighter aircraft of front aviation;
----- area of fighter aircraft combat air patrol and lines of intercepting air targets;
----- method of joint actions by fighter aircraft and air defense rocket and artillery units in one area;
----- joint deployment and method of relocation and movement of guidance and target identification points in command posts of air defense rocket units;
----- providing flight security for friendly aircraft in firing zones of air defense rocket and artillery units;
----- coordination signals, mutual identification, and target definition.

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with radio- electronic jamming units include:
----- designation of enemy targets to be jammed by radio and electronic suppression means of front and combined arms, tank, and air armies;
----- coordination of the time of employment of radio-electronic suppression means of combined arms, tank, and air armies;
----- coordination of measures on preventing friendly troop control means from being jammed by one another (mutual interference).



Participation of front aviation staff in planning frontal offensive operations

Planning front offensive operations is conducted after the commander's decision has been made. It is a crucial phase of the preparation of an operation. In planning the offensive operation the following plans are prepared:
----- plan of offensive operation of the front with annexes and instructions;
----- initial nuclear strike;
----- airborne assault action;
----- air operation (if needed);
----- employment of the front aviation in the front offensive;
----- employment of rocket and artillery troops;
----- front air defense;
----- combat support measures (such as reconnaissance, deception, engineer, protection of troops against mass destruction weapons, rear services, etc.);
----- organization of command and control and signals;
----- political affairs;
----- other plans.

The front aviation commander and staff play a vital role in working out most of these tasks.



Planning the initial nuclear strike

The front aviation actively participates in planning the initial nuclear strike. During the initial nuclear strike the destruction of small and mobile targets is normally allocated to front aviation, and details are worked out in this plan. During planning of the initial nuclear-strike the methods of destruction of known (located) enemy nuclear delivery means, air force troops, air defense means, command posts, and other targets located in the front's area are specified. The initial nuclear strike is launched against targets located in the front area up to the boundary of the strategic nuclear strike, which was 250 km from the front line. (This distance is determined by the range of operational rockets available in the front. Therefore, if the front now has organic rockets with the capability of hitting deeper targets, then the depth of this boundary line will be greater).

Planning for inflicting losses on the enemy targets is not limited to the initial strike, but is conducted during the operation as well. During the planning of the initial nuclear strike the calculation of the use of nuclear weapons is conducted for each target earmarked to be hit by front aviation. In this case the following points are specified:
----- which unit and large unit will launch strikes against which targets;
----- the center for each explosion;
----- the number and yield of nuclear rounds and bombs for each target;
----- the altitude of airbursts;
----- the safety distance for friendly forces from the center of the nuclear explosion.

During the use of nuclear weapons and the conduct of the front initial nuclear strike, the main missions for front aviation are determined and the nuclear rounds and bombs are allocated and distributed in terms of front missions and the missions of the operational formations. The plan for the initial strike is worked out jointly by the front operations directorate in conjunction with the participation of the rocket and artillery staff and the front aviation staff under the direct control of the front chief of staff. The plan is prepared graphically on a map of 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scale with an annex of written instructions and also with graphics of the initial nuclear strike. The front aviation staff prepares the graphic of the initial nuclear strike for the operation of the front aviation during this phase of planning. This shows the targets, elements used against each target, and the operational formations to be used during the penetration of the enemy air defense area. The front aviation staff also prepares documents showing the distribution and allocation of nuclear and chemical bombs in terms of initial nuclear strike, immediate and subsequent missions of front and armies, and the number of nuclear weapons to be kept in reserve.



Planning the air operation

The air operation is normally conducted at the strategic level in the TVD, but sometimes it can be conducted at the front level. The aim of the air operation includes the following objectives:
----- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel on the airfields;
----- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel in aerial combat (battles and engagements);
----- destruction of enemy striking naval aircraft in areas of combat maneuver and on their bases;
----- destruction of enemy aircraft command, control and guidance system;
----- destruction of nuclear bomb depots, POL depots, and ammunition and technical material depots;
----- destruction and mining of runways, landing strips, and other installations on airfields.



Participating forces in air operations

When air operations are conducted at the strategic level in the Western TSMA the following forces may participate:
----- aviation of three to four fronts;
----- one to two strategic air corps;
----- several strategic aviation divisions;
----- naval air forces;
----- Warsaw Pact national air forces;
----- air defense forces of the fronts;
----- national operational formations and large units of air defense.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the supreme high command decision and under the supervision of the general staff. Troop control, interaction and planning of the operation are conducted by the commander in chief of the air forces. The commanders of front air armies participate in the planning of this strategic operation.

When the air operation is conducted at the level of a single front the following troops participate:
----- front aviation troops;
----- front and army artillery and rocket troops;
----- front and army air defense troops;
----- radio-electronic warfare units.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the front commander's decision. They are planned by the operations directorate of the front with the participation of the chiefs and commanders of rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, radio electronic warfare service as well as the staff of front aviation. Troop control and interaction in the operation are conducted by front aviation. Planning is worked out on a map of 1:200,000 or 1:500,000 scale with annexes containing written instructions.

The front aviation staff plans the method of conduct of the air operation on the basis of the front plan. It prepares the graphic for the initial massive strike and the aerial combat to include the targets, number of aircraft for each, operational formation and passage over enemy air defenses.



Developing the plan of the combat action of the front aviation in the front offensive operation

During the organization of the combat action of front aviation, the front aviation commander, after clarifying the mission and the decision of the front commander, and instructions from higher headquarters; making a thorough assessment of the situation; and making his decision on the combat employment of the front aviation, instructs the staff to plan the action of the front aviation.

On the basis of the front aviation commander's decision, the front aviation staff, led by the chief of staff, plans the front aviation operation on the map and prepares other required documents with instructions, documents, tables, diagrams, and required text. The plan is worked out in more detail and more elaboration for the first day of the operation, particularly for the initial nuclear strike and the initial massive strike on the enemy.

In the graphic part of the plan the following elements are shown on the map.
----- the situation and the character of operations of the enemy ground forces and main air grouping;
----- the enemy's air force grouping (airfields, number and type of aircraft, possible flight directions for enemy operations, likely actions of enemy against front forces and installations;
----- distribution of enemy air forces against the targets, main targets of enemy strikes and their likely classification in terms of different altitudes, most likely direction of flight of air mobile forces);
----- the location of nuclear rocket forces, nuclear depots, command posts and also enemy air defense troops;
----- operational disposition of front forces and their missions, boundary lines with adjacents and between armies;
----- command posts of front armies and divisions in their departure areas and during the operation;
----- grouping of air defense forces of front, armies, and adjacent armies;
----- grouping of front aviation troops in the departure area, that is, the deployment of fighter, fighter bomber, bomber, reconnaissance, transport aviation, and helicopters on airfields at the beginning, and during the operation;
----- areas of fighter aircraft on combat air patrol, lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from these areas. Lines of intercepting enemy aircraft from positions where standby combat aircraft are on alert on their airfields;
----- the front aviation command post and the combat troop control system of front aviation at the beginning and during the operation;
----- areas of friendly forces' radars and air defense rocket and artillery positions;
----- areas for dropping airborne troops, direction of flight of airborne forces; and method of support during embarkation, during flight, during the drop, and during the landing operation.

In addition to these, the following documents are also prepared:
----- graphic of the initial nuclear strike pertaining to the employment of front aviation to include targets, and elements to destroy them, and the operational formation for passage through the air defence, etc.;
----- method of conduct of air operations - that is graphic of the initial massive strike and air battles, to include targets - number of aircraft for each target. Operational formation, penetration through the air defense;
----- covering of troops against enemy air strikes in cooperation with air defense forces;
----- support of combined arms and tank armies during the operation;
----- conduct of air reconnaissance.

The written instructions of the plan include the following details:
----- assessment of enemy air and air defense forces;
----- distribution of flights in support of combined arms and tank armies, and support of airborne, etc.;
----- allocation of a number of nuclear and chemical bombs and their distribution between the initial nuclear strike, the immediate and subsequent missions of the front, armies, and reserves;
----- combat composition of front aviation;
----- concept and tasks in the initial nuclear strike and air operation;
----- other details.

The working documents reflect the following items:
----- calculation of the time required for bringing the air force troops to the state of full combat readiness and combat alert;
----- measures of protection of troops and means from the impact of nuclear weapons;
----- diagrams of warning - tables of interaction, tables of signal communication, etc.;
----- in addition to this, other tables, diagrams, and graphics required for the operation are prepared.

The plan is signed by the front aviation commander and chief of staff and front chief of staff and approved by the front commander.



Interaction in offensive action

Interaction is organized on the basis of the instructions of the front commander in order to coordinate in the most appropriate manner the efforts of front aviation with the combined arms and tank armies in terms of missions, times, and space in the offensive operation, and to organize the most effective interaction between them. Interaction regulates and harmonizes the actions of different elements during launching air strikes and provides for the mutual identification. Interaction is organized by the commander and staff of the front aviation, combined arms, and tank armies throughout the entire depth of the operation and during the accomplishment of important missions, such as:
----- breakthrough of enemy defenses;
----- initial nuclear strike;
----- commitment of second echelon forces;
----- repelling the enemy counter blow;
----- river crossing operation on wide rivers;
----- launching of the airborne and seaborne assault forces and other.

In addition to this, the interaction of the front aviation is established with units and large units of rocket and artillery forces, air defense, radio electronic jamming units, and others.

The important issues of interaction of the front aviation are specified in the decision of the front aviation commander and these issues are also reflected in the plans of combat actions of the front aviation.



The Main Issues of interaction

During the establishment of interaction between the front aviation and combined arms and tank armies the following issues are harmonized:
----- distribution of nuclear rounds allocated to the front aviation to the different tasks;
----- distribution of specified air sorties of the front aviation among combined arms and tank armies;
----- air reconnaissance tasks and methods for sending reconnaissance information to the headquarters of combined arms and tank armies;
----- the method of calling for aircraft support by ground forces;
----- tasks on dropping or landing airborne troops and support of their combat action;
----- method for seizure of enemy airfields by infantry and tank troops and support of the movement of airfield engineer units to those airfields and provision of assistance to them in restoring the seized airfields for own use and provision of support for their defense;
----- support of the movement of air armies' rear service units in the wake of attacking troops;
----- cooperation and interaction during the accomplishment of important tasks such as penetration of enemy defenses, repelling counterblows, commitment of second echelon troops, and other important missions;
----- mutual identification, target definition, and signals

The establishment of interaction between front aviation and rocket and artillery troops includes the following point:
----- targets and the time for launching attacks against them by nuclear delivery means;
----- suppression and destruction of enemy air defense targets in support of the flight of the front aviation aircraft;
----- conduct of air reconnaissance in support of rocket and artillery troops;
----- providing flight security for aircraft in the firing zone of rocket and artillery troops;
----- mutual identification and definition of targets to one another

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with air defense troops include the following:
----- method of warning on the air situation;
----- combat action areas of air defense rocket troops, air defense artillery units and fighter aircraft of the front aviation;
----- area of combat air patrol of fighter aircraft and the lines of intercepting air targets;
----- method of joint actions by fighter aircraft and air defense rocket and artillery units in one area;
----- joint deployment and method of relocation and movement of guidance and target identification points in command posts of air defense rocket units;
----- providing flight security for friendly aircraft in firing zones of air defense rocket and artillery units;
----- coordination signals, mutual identification, and target definition.

The main issues of interaction of front aviation with radio- electronic jamming units include:
----- designation of enemy targets to be jammed by radio and electronic suppression means of front, combined arms and tank, and air armies;
----- coordination of the time of employment of radio electronic suppression means of combined arms, tank and air armies;
----- coordination of measures on preventing own troop control means from being jammed by one another (mutual interference).



Participation of the front aviation staff in the planning of frontal offensive operations

Planning of front offensive operations is conducted after the commander's decision has been made. It is a crucial phase of the preparation of an operation. In planning the offensive operation the following plans are prepared:
----- plan of offensive operation of front with annexes and instructions;
----- initial nuclear strike;
----- airborne assault action;
----- air operation (if needed);
----- employment of the front aviation in the front offensive;
----- employment of rocket and artillery troops;
----- front air defense- combat support measures (such as
----- reconnaissance, deception, engineer, protection of troops against mass destruction weapons, rear services etc.);
----- organization of troop control and signals;
----- political affairs;
----- other plans.

The front aviation commander and staff play a vital role in working out most of these tasks. Here are some of the details:



Planning of the Initial Nuclear Strike

The front aviation actively participates in planning of the initial nuclear strike. During the initial nuclear strike the destruction of small and mobile targets is normally allocated to the front aviation and details are worked out in this plan. During planning of the initial nuclear strike the methods of destruction of known (located) enemy nuclear delivery means, air force troops, air defense means, command posts and other targets located in the front's area are specified. The initial nuclear strike is launched against targets located in the front area up to the boundary of the strategic nuclear strike, which was 250 km from the front line. ( This distance is determined by the range of the operational rockets available in the front. Therefore if the front now has organic rockets with the capability of hitting deeper targets then the depth of this boundary line will be greater.)

Planning for inflicting losses on the enemy targets is not limited to the initial strike, but is conducted during the operation as well. During planning of the initial nuclear strike the calculation of the use of nuclear weapons is conducted for each target earmarked to be hit by the front aviation. In this case the following points are specified:
----- which unit and large unit will launch strikes against which targets;
----- the center for each explosion;
----- the number and yield of nuclear rounds and bombs for each target;
----- the altitude of air bursts;
----- the safety distance for friendly forces from the center of the nuclear explosion.

During the use of nuclear weapons and the conduct of the front initial nuclear strike the main missions for the front aviation are determined and the nuclear rounds and bombs are allocated and distributed in terms of front missions and the missions of the operational formations. The plan for the initial strike is worked out jointly by the front operations directorate in conjunction with the participation of the rocket and artillery staff and the front aviation staff under the direct control of the front chief of staff. The plan is prepared graphically on a map of 1:500,000 or 1:200,000 scale with an annex of written instructions and also with graphics of the initial nuclear strike. The front aviation staff prepares the graphic of the initial nuclear strike for the operation of the front aviation during this phase of planning. This shows the targets, elements used against each target, and the operational formations to be used during the penetration of the enemy air defense area. The front aviation staff also prepares the documents showing the distribution and allocation of nuclear and chemical bombs in terms of initial nuclear strike, immediate and subsequent missions of front and armies and the number of nuclear weapons to be kept in reserve.



Planning the Air Operation

The air operation is normally conducted at the strategic level in the TVD, but sometimes it can be conducted at the front level. The aim of the air operation includes the following objectives:
----- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel on the airfields;
----- destruction of enemy aircraft and flight personnel in aerial combat (battles and engagements);
----- destruction of enemy striking naval aircraft in areas of combat maneuver and on their bases;
----- destruction of enemy aircraft command, control and guidance system;
----- destruction of nuclear bomb depots, POL depots, and ammunition and technical material depots;
----- destruction and mining of runways, landing strips, and other installations on airfields.



Participating Forces in Air Operations

When air operations are conducted at the strategic level in the Western TVD the following forces may participate:
----- 3-4 front aviation;
----- 1-2 strategic air corps;
----- several strategic aviation divisions;
----- naval air forces;
----- Warsaw Pact national air forces;
----- air defense forces of the fronts;
----- national operational formations and large units of air defense.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the supreme high command decision and under the supervision of the general staff. Troop control, interaction and planning of the operation are conducted by the commander in chief of the air forces. The commanders of front air armies participate in planning of this strategic operation.

When the air operation is conducted at the level of a single front the following troops participate:
----- front aviation troops;
----- front and army artillery and rocket troops;
----- front and army air defense troops;
----- radio-electronic warfare units.

Such operations are conducted on the basis of the front commander's decision. They are planned by the operations directorate of the front with the participation of the chiefs and commanders of rocket and artillery troops, air defense troops, radio electronic warfare service as well as the staff of the front aviation. Troop control and interaction are conducted by the front aviation. Planning is worked out on a map of 1:200,000 or 1:500,000 scale with annexes containing written instructions.

The front aviation staff plans the method of conduct of the air operation on the basis of the front plan and prepares the graphic for the initial massive strike and the aerial combat to include the targets, number of aircraft for each, operational formation and passage over enemy air defenses.



Planning for an Airborne Assault Operation

Airborne assault operations are classified in terms of scale as strategic, operational, operational-tactical, tactical and special operations. In terms of forms they can be parachute assault, landing assault or combined.

The parachute airborne assault operations are launched by transport aircraft by dropping forces by parachute to conduct combat actions in the enemy rear and also to seize his airfields in order to provide for later landing of airborne assault units. The landing form of airborne assault is conducted by aircraft, helicopter and gliders on airfields and helicopter landing zones in the enemy rear. The strategic operation and operational airborne assault operation are mostly conducted by airborne large units and units, while tactical air assault operations are mostly launched by motorized rifle units and subunits.



Strategic-Operational Airborne Operations

Such operations are conducted by one or several airborne divisions supported by motorized rifle troops landed by aircraft in the objective area. Such operations are planned by the general staff with the participation of the commander in chief of the air force, and the airborne forces command. This is designated a "desant" operation. The forces participating in such operations include several transport aviation divisions, LRA, up to one MRD, national air defense forces, naval forces, front air armies and front rocket, artillery, and air defense units. The missions of such operations are:
----- seizure of political and administrative centers;
----- destruction of state control systems;
----- destruction of bases and groupings of enemy nuclear forces, which are hit by heavy nuclear strikes;
----- seizure of vital economic areas, large islands, and archipelagos;
----- support of resistance forces operating inside enemy territory by opening an internal front;
----- assisting attacking front forces in accomplishing their missions;
----- preventing the movement of enemy reserves;
----- opening new fronts in new directions.

The depth of the landing in a strategic-operational airborne operation is 500-600 km or more.



Operational Airborne Assault Landings

Operational airborne assault operations may be conducted by an airborne division, and the depth of its landing in conventional war is 150-300 km (in nuclear war the depth may be 300-400 km). The planning and conduct of such operations is done by the front commander and staff with the participation and coordination of military transport aviation staffs and other services of the armed forces, as well as the commanders and chiefs of front combat and combat support arms. The missions of operational-level airborne assault operations are as follows:
----- destruction of enemy mass destruction weapons;
----- seizure and destruction of nuclear rocket bases and nuclear depots and ammunition;
----- support for a high-speed attack of front ground forces;
----- cooperation in the envelopment and destruction of enemy groupings that are hit by nuclear strikes;
----- prevention of enemy retreat and also the movement of enemy reserves;
----- destruction of troop control systems;
----- destruction of enemy rear services;
----- seizure of crossing sites and assistance to front forces in crossing major water obstacles on the march.

The airborne assault units are dropped in a limited area. The division landing area can be 30 x 40 km. In order to drop an airborne division three to four military transport aviation divisions are required. Each transport aviation division has up to 130 aircraft. The airborne division can defend and conduct combat missions for six to seven days.



Operational-Tactical Airborne Assault

The operational-tactical airborne assault is conducted by one airborne regiment or an airborne assault brigade. The depth of landing in conventional war is 100-150 km (in nuclear war it can be 250-300 km). Its missions are the following:
----- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons and nuclear and chemical weapons bases and depots;
----- seizure of enemy airfields and airbases;
----- seizure of command and control organs;
----- destruction of enemy air defense means;
----- seizure of bridges and bridgeheads on major rivers;
----- seizure of mountain passes and critical terrain features;
----- seizure of other important targets;
----- seizure and maintenance of important lines and areas in the enemy rear (if the airborne assault is launched by an airborne assault brigade).
----- provide for open flanks of army groupings;
----- combat enemy reserves, airmobile troops, and enemy naval and airborne assault forces.

The high maneuverability of airborne assault brigades requires that they conduct their combat action in the air and on the ground in cooperation with the attacking forces and other elements of the front and army and launch their strikes by surprise. The employment of such brigades is normally conducted in the wake of nuclear strikes. Planning of operational- tactical airborne operations is conducted by front and army staffs with the participation of combat and combat support arms.



Tactical Airborne Assault

The tactical airborne assault is conducted by forces composed of a reinforced company and up to a motorized rifle regiment. They are mostly launched on the first day of the operation. The landing depth for a company or battalion is 15-20 km. For a regiment the depth may be 50-100 km. Its missions are the following:
----- destruction of enemy nuclear weapons and depots;
----- destruction and seizure of command posts;
----- destruction of surviving enemy small groups;
----- preventing the maneuver of enemy forces and means that have maintained combat capability;
----- assistance for first-echelon forces in the seizure of road junctions and river crossing sites;
----- assisting in the passage through radioactive contaminated areas and obstacles, primarily obstacles established by nuclear mines.

Planning of such operations is conducted by army or division staff, with participation by the chiefs and commanders of combat and combat support arms, particularly the front aviation staff.

In the instructions of the front, army, and division commanders airborne assault units are given the following:
----- composition of airborne assault forces;
----- areas, times, and means of dropping or landing;
----- combat missions during operations in the enemy rear;
----- method for launching nuclear and air strikes on targets and landing areas and in support of subsequent combat actions;
----- method of interaction with air forces, air defense troops, and forces attacking from the front;
----- departure areas, time for their occupation, and time of preparation for airborne assault;
----- troop control.

The commander and staff of the front aviation, during their participation in the organizational phase of the airborne assault operation, conduct the necessary planning and work out the air cover and air support for the airborne assault forces. Their involvement in this process depends on the mission, responsibility and volume of the front aviation's participation in the given airborne operation. If the landing of airborne assault forces is conducted on a smaller scale by the front aviation transport, the planning is conducted by the front, army, or division staff responsible for the landing area. In this case the representatives of the front aviation staff work with those of the units and large units that interact during the operation. The necessary documents such as the decision of the transport aircraft commander, table of landing, calculation of flights for landing, etc., are prepared jointly. The plan for the operation is prepared in written form with a map annex, or it is prepared on the map with annexes of written instructions.



Combat Readiness of the front aviation

In the air force troops, as in the other services of the armed forces, there are three states of combat readiness.



Constant Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness the personnel conduct their day-to-day training activities in accordance with designated programs. Units and sub-units are supplied up to the norms in terms of personnel, armament, and combat equipment. The aircraft are ready for combat employment, and the units are prepared for accomplishing combat missions.



Higher Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness personnel are brought to the state of permanent lodging on post, material supplies and ammunition are loaded on vehicles, and units are ready to deploy to new airfields. Combat-duty personnel are increased, and, if time permits, personnel continue their training activities.



Full Combat Readiness

In this state of readiness all units, large units, and command posts of aviation troops are brought to full combat readiness for the accomplishment of combat missions. This state of combat readiness can be initiated by combat alarm and will be conducted in the shortest possible time. In this state of combat readiness the front aviation's command and control organs occupy areas designated for them in advance. The forward command posts deploy, and the deputy front aviation commander with operational group moves to the front air defense command post for command and control of fighter aircraft.

Aviation regiments of all types of air force troops move to the deployment airfields, or they may remain at previous airfields and they are brought to state of readiness number one or one and two.

The movement of aviation troops to deployment airfields is not allowed in all conditions, because it will take 30 to 60 minutes to move one squadron from one airfield to another (including takeoff, flight, landing, and resupply). Therefore, sometimes it is better to accomplish urgent tasks from the permanent airfields and then land in deployment fields.

In state of preparedness number one for aircraft the entire aircrew should not remain in the aircraft for more than one hour. Half of the aircrew should be in the aircraft, and the other half should be stationed close to the aircraft, in readiness state number two.

Readiness number one. In this state the aircrew is seated in the aircraft and, by receiving the signal from the regiment, can be airborne in eight to ten minutes.

Readiness number two. In this state the aircrew is near the aircraft and, by receiving the signal from regiment, they can be airborne in 20 minutes.



Charts to Accompany the Text


| Chart 1 - front aviation plan for front offensive operation

This chart depicts the air plan as it would be drawn on an operations map. It shows the location of friendly airfields, command posts of air and ground units, air defense rocket units, surface-to-surface rocket units, and air navigation and guidance posts. It shows the location of the front line, the front boundaries, the line of the front's immediate and subsequent missions, and the lines for interception of enemy aircraft. It shows the location of the initial loading, the air corridors, and the drop zones for airborne landing operations. It shows the locations for establishment of air cover (combat air patrols). It also shows the location of enemy airfields, the number and type of enemy aircraft on them, and enemy headquarters. It shows the location of expected enemy air attack corridors.


Chart 2 - Missions of the front aviation in support of combined arms and tank armies during the front offensive

This chart illustrates the text to show the grouping of front air forces, targets to be hit, airfields, directions of penetration, passage through enemy air defenses, and the combat air formations. This information would be shown on the map of the air plan. More detailed information giving the times and unit designations would also be given in tables. The chart shows the front's boundaries and missions and the direction of main attack.


Chart 3 - Missions of the front aviation in the initial nuclear strike

This chart shows the air corridors, air groupings and formations, airfields, reconnaissance sectors, targets, nuclear coordination line, and front boundaries and missions. Detailed information about the participation of the front aviation in the initial nuclear strike is shown in tables as part of the plan for the strike itself, as well as in the front aviation's own plans.


Chart 4--Missions of the front aviation to cover ground forces and logistic installations

This chart shows the grouping of air defense fighters, the air defense missiles, the defended surface-to-surface missiles, the air cover locations, the enemy main attack directions, the interception areas, airfields, front missions and boundaries, and axes of ground forces. This information in more detail would be contained in tables to accompany the air defense plans. It is provided here to illustrate the text.


Chart 5 - Destruction of enemy air forces on their airfields and in the air or in air operations

This chart depicts the front aviation operation to destroy enemy air. It shows the air groupings, air corridors, formations, airfields, enemy attack axes, enemy airfields, and the reconnaissance sectors. It shows the front boundaries and missions. This information is contained in great detail in tables to accompany the map of the front aviation plan. This symbology would be used to depict the information on the map.

Chart 6 - Transport aviation plan for conduct of airborne operation

This chart illustrates the text to show the formation of transport aviation in an airborne operation.


Chart 7 - Formation of air transport regiment in three echelons

This chart illustrates the text to show the formation of an air regiment.